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i.  1.  mm  IGtbrara 

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NORTH  CAROLINA  STME  I 


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PREFACE. 


The  act  of  the  New  York  State  Legislature,  passtd 
on  the  15th  day  of  May,  1885 — which  may  justly  be 
considered  as  inaugurating  a  new  era  in  the  forestry 
matters  of  the  Empire  State — directs  the  members  of 
the  Forest  Commission  *'  to  prepare  tracts  or  circulars 
"  of  information,  giving  plain  and  concise  advice  for 
"  the  care  of  wood-lands  upon  private  lands,  and  for 
"  the  starting  of  new  plantations  upon  lands  that 
"  have  been  denuded,  exhausted  by  cultivation,  eroded 
"  by  torrents,  or  injured  by  fire,  or  that  are  sandy, 
"  marshy,  broken,  sterile,  or  waste  and  unfit  for  other 
"  use."  This  well-meant  instruction  has  not,  to  my 
knowledge,  been  carried  into  execution,  very  likely 
because  we  have  no  literature  of  any  importance 
upon  this  subject — for  forestry  with  us  has  not  been 
regarded  as  being  a  branch  of  rural  economy  worthy 
of  literary  treatment,  and,  therefore,  this  field  of  cul- 
ture has  been  left  nearly  untouched. 

In  this  limited  work  I  have  attempted  to  bring 
within  as  small  a  compass  as  is  consistent  with  clear- 
ness of  statement  the  salient  points  of  systematic 
forestry  and  its  application  to  the  restocking  of  de- 
nuded wood-lands  on  plains  and  mountains.  Ameri- 
can writers  on  forestry  have  mostly  confined  them- 
selves to  the  treatment  of  forest  trees  as  single  trees, 
and  not  as  masses  of  trees  raised  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  crops  of  wood  or  timber.  They  thought 
that  forestry  was  an  art  of  tree  planting,  destined  to 
create,  by  artificial  sowing  and  planting,  new  forests; 
and  that,  as  we  are  still  in  the  possession  of  many 
and  large  natural  forests,  the  creation  of  new  forests 
was  to  us  a  foreign   matter.     This   is  entirely  wrong, 


IV  FOREST    PLANTING. 

for  if  we  really  will  preserve  our  natural  or  wild 
forests — and  this  is  undoubtedly  a  much  better  and 
cheaper  policy  than  to  continue  destroying  them, 
and  to  later  raise,  at  an  enormous  cost  and  loss  of 
time,  artificial  forests — we  have  to  care  for  our 
woods  just  as  fully  as  the  artificial  forests  in  the 
European  countries  are  treated  ;  for  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  forests  it  makes  no  difference  at  all  whether 
they  are  originated  by  nature  or  by  human  art,  be- 
cause both  are  subject  to  the  same  dangers  and 
injuries.  Unless  the  natural  forests  are  managed 
systematically,  we  cannot  but  expect  that  the  repara- 
tion of  damages  done  to  a  forest  either  by  accidents 
or  elementary  forces,  or  by  the  natural  course  of  tree 
life,  will  take  as  many  centuries  as  it  would  require 
decades  for  this  purpose,  if  we  assist  nature  in  its 
regenerating  endeavors  through  the  means  suggested 
by  scientific  forestry. 

The  condition  in  which  our  forests  are  now,  is  not 
such  as  to  warrant  us  in  "  pooh-poohing  "  the  idea  of 
looking  forinstruction  in  this  matter  to  the  European 
nations,  and  to  only  glance  at  their  methods  of  treating 
forests,  because  we  have  a  different  form  of  govern- 
ment (see  Report  of  the  N.  Y.  Forest  Commission, 
1886,  page  67),  or  because  "the  entire  condition  of 
things  here  differs  so  materially  from  that  in  the  old 
world."  (See  Report  of  the  Forest  Commission,  1887, 
page  17.)  Certainly  there  is  a  great  difference  be- 
tween our  government  and  that  of  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  and  politico-economical  matters  are 
often  treated  here  differently  from  what  they  are 
there  ;  but  this  does  not  affect  the  question  of  pre- 
serving to  the  succeeding  generations  the  7iatural 
resources  of  a  country  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  its 
inhabitants.  ILj^e  cannot  invent  better  methods 
of  preserving  forests  than  those  we  have   practiced 


u^^  the  present  time,  and  by  which  our  forests 
will  soon  be  doomed  to  total  extinction,  we  should 
not  only  glance  at,  but  study  European  systems 
closely,  and  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  adopting 
them  to  some  extent,  if  necessary.  If  we  do  that  we 
will  find  that,  without  ^^  viakbig  the  elaborate  science  a?id 
intricate  machinery  of  jEuropean  forestry  available  i?t  this 
State''  (see  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Forest  Com- 
mission, Albany,  1887,  page  17),  the  preservation  of 
our  woods  can  be  accomplished,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  continued  and  even  enlarged  exploitation  may  be 
secured  by  applying  some  similar  methods,  subject 
of  course  to  such  changes  as  are  rendered  necessary 
by  a  diversity  of  climate,  soil  and  local  influenci^, 

Although  twenty  years'  experience  in  forestry  in 
northern  Germany,  combined  with  personal  observa- 
tion in  this  country,  during  a  like  period,  would  seem 
to  justify  me  in  urging  the  practicability  of  intro- 
ducing systematic  forestry  into  the  United  States,  I  do 
not  intend  to  express  here  a  positive  opinion  on  this 
point.  During  the  course  of  my  experience  in  this 
State,  I  have  heard  and  read  so  much  regarding  the 
necessity  of  arresting  the  reckless  use  and  destruction 
of  our  forests,  that  I  thought  the  time  had  at  last  ar- 
rived to  answer  the  question,  "  How  shall  we  preserve  our 
forejti?"  with  a  practical  work.  In  the  following 
pages  I  have  endeavored  to  furnish  sufficient  hints  to 
those  who  are  interested  in  this  important  matter,  to 
form  a  correct  opinion  in  regard  to  the  requirements 
of  the  culture  of  forests,  and  to  apply  the  acquired 
knowledge  to  the  proper  preservation  of  wild  or 
natural  forests,  and  the  restoration  of  wood-lands 
which  have  been  denuded. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  chapters,  I  have  been  led 
by  a  desire  to  give  not  only  reliable  information  upon 
the  subject,  but  also  to  furnish  teachers  in  forest  cul- 


VI  FOREST    PLANTING. 

ture  a  more  practical  guide  than  they  have  found 
hitherto  in  American  books.  No  claim  for  complete- 
ness is  made,  the  less  so  as  it  is  only  a  pioneer  des- 
tined to  invite  better  and  more  experienced  men  to 
treat  more  fully  upon  a  subject,  the  importance  of 
which  is  more  and  more  felt  every  year.  The  enum- 
eration and  description  of  our  common  forest  trees 
has  been  omitted  intentionally,  as  these  topics  are 
treated  by  others  with  great  thoroughness. 

The  Diagrams  given  in  Chapter  IX,  Part  II,  and  in 
Chapter  III,  Part  III,  explain  themselves,  and  show 
the  engineering  work  to  be  done  in  covering  downs 
on  the  sea-coast  with  trees,  and  in  reforesting  mount- 
ains when  their  slopes  have  been  cleared  of  natural 
woods,  and  torrents  with  deep  ravines  have  been 
formed.  The  views  showing  the  gorgeous  scenery  of 
the  Adirondacks  are  not,  perhaps,  necessary  to  the 
book  ;  but  they  are  given  to  arouse  those  who  are 
unaware  of  the  beauties  of  our  native  mountain  for- 
ests, and  to  create  a  spirit  of  enthusiasm  which  shall 
not  only  help  to  prevent  further  devastation  of  our 
State  forests,  but  also  may  assist  in  restocking  the 
wantonly  denuded  wood-lands. 

To  a  good  agriculturist  with  sufficient  experience 
in  the  nature  and  behavior  of  the  principal  forest  trees, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  apply  the  given  instructions 
so  as  to  accomplish  the  principal  objects  of  modern 
forestry  in  the  preservation  of  wild  or  natural  forests. 

Although  the  present  book  is  written  only  with 
regard  to  the  requirements  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
there  is  no  reason  why  the  instructions  given  in  its 
pages  should  not  be  applicable  to  other  localities, 
where  the  same  conditions  exist,  if  the  proper  allow- 
ance is  made  for  diversity  of  climate,  soil  and  topo- 
graphy. ^ 

The  Author. 


CONTENTS. 

PART    I.— Forest  Culture. 

CHAPTER   I. 
;  Introductory  Remarks 9 

<'                                                    CHAPTER    II. 
ii4  Impoi-tance  of  Forest  Culture.- 15 

CHAPTER    III. 

Proportion  of  the  Wooded  Lands  of  a  Country  to  its  Total  Area 19 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Relations  of  the  Government  to  Forests— Protective  Forests 22 

CHAPTER    V. 
Governmental    Assistance    to   Forest  Culture  —  Establishment  of 

Forest  Schools  for  Training  Foresters 29 

CHAPTER   VI. 

Forest  Planting  -Preparatory  and  Precautionary  Measures 36 

CHAPTER    VII. 

J    Methods  of  Culture  and  their  Success 38 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

^     Cultivation  of  the  Soil - 41 

CHAPTER    IX. 

'     Drainage  and  Irrigation 43 

CHAPTER    X. 

t.    Selection  of  Trees ---    47 

CHAPTER    XI. 

V'  The  Various  Systems  of  Forest  Management -    54 

CHAPTER  ■  XII. 

Raising  Forest  Trees  by  Natural  Reproduction 64 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

The  Collection  and  Treatment  of  Seeds  for  Forest-Trees 68 

CHAPTER    XIV. 
Raising  Forest  Trees  by  Seeding ..-      74 

CHAPTER    XV. 
7  Planting  Forest  Trees  90 

CHAPTER    XVI. 
The  Care  of  Young  Plantations 109 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

Protection  of  Forests  against  Animals  and  Elemental  Forces 118 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 
The  Conversion  of  the  Wild  or  Natural  Woods  into  Cultivated 

Forests— What  the  American  Forester  should  do  next 138 


VIII  FOREST    PLANTING. 

PART    II.— Forest  Planting  on  Plains. 

CHAPTER    I. 
Forest  Planting  on  Lands  with  Alluvial  Soil 147 

CIIAPTEPt    II. 
Forest  Planting  on  Marshy  or  Swampy  Lands 150 

CHAPTER    III. 
Forest  Planting  on  Moorlands 153 

CHAPTER    IV. 
Forest  Planting  on  High  Moors-__ 156 

CHAPTER    V. 
Drainage 160 

CHAPTER   VL 
Burning  over  the  Soil  for  Cultivation 165 

CHAPTER    VII. 
Forest  Planting  on  Sand-Wastes  or  Pine-Barrens 168 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
Forest  Planting  on  Inland  Sand-Drifts 1 71 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Covering  Downs  or  Sand  Dunes  on  the  Sea  Coast  with  Trees  and 

Shrubs— 'With  Diagrams 17-1 


PART    III. — Forest  Planting  on  Mou 


NTAINS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
The  Objects  of  Covering  Mountains  with  Forest  Trees.. 1S3 

CHAPTER    II. 
Selection  of  Trees— Replanting  Forests  on  Mountains — Planting  or 

Seeding ....    18-1 

CHAPTER    III. 
Restocking  Denuded  Woodlands  in  Mountains — Preparatory  and 

Protective  Pleasures—  With  Diagrams 190 

CHAPTER    IV. 
How  to  Arrest  and  Bind  the  Shifting  Sand  on  Mountains 204 

CHAPTER    V. 
Replanting  Forests  on  Mountains  of  the  Sandstone  Formation 207 

CHAPTER    VT. 

Replanting  Forests  on  Mountains  of  the  Limestone  Formation 209 

CHAPTER    VII. 
Re-stocking  Mountains  having  Rocky  Surfaces _  213 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
Re-stocking  Denuded  Woodlands  on  High  Mountains 217 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Concluding  Remarks— 1.  State  Forest  Nursery.     2.  Forest  School 

in    the    Adirondacks.      3.    Forest   E.xperiment  Station.      4. 

Asylum  for  Game  to  Rest  and  Breed 222 

Index 235 


FOREST    PLANTIN  G. 


PART    I. — Forest  Culture. 

CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

About  sixty  years  ago,  Governor  DeWitt  Clinton,  in 
a  message  to  the  Legislature  of  New  York,  urged  the 
fostering  of  forest  planting,  and  declared  that  the  repro- 
duction of  our  woods  was  an  object  of  primary  import- 
ance. This  sensible  advice  did  not  receive  that  legisla- 
tive consideration  which  the  great  interests  involved 
therein  merited.  The  devastation  of  our  forests,  especi- 
ally of  those  situated  in  the  Adirondack  region,  went  on 
as  before,  nay  even  increased  from  year  to  year,  so  that 
now  the  formerly  densely  wooded  summits  of  those 
mountains  are  nearly  denuded.  We  will  not  expatiate 
here  on  the  calamities  which  have  already  befallen  the 
country  by  the  continual  deforestation  of  our  mountains, 
and  which  undoubtedly  will  in  time  grow  to  much  larger 
dimensions  ;  we  only  point  to  the  fact  that  since  the  axe 
of  the  tanner,  lumberman  and  miner  has  reached  the 
previously  well-stocked  high  plateaus  on  the  Adirondacks 
(whence  the  sources  of  the  Hudson,  the  Black  Eiver, 
some  tributaries  of  the  Mohawk  and  other  rivers  take 
their  rise),  our  noble  Hudson  river  has  lost  nearly  five 
feet  in  its  average  depth.  This  fall  in  the  level  of  the 
(9) 


10  FOREST    PLANTING. 

river  will  undoubtedly  continue,  unless  an  effective  stop 
is  put  to  the  further  deforestation  of  the  Adirondacks, 
and  the  reforestation  of  the  denuded  Avood-lands  thereon 
is  begun.  But  here  we  encounter  difficulties  which 
apparently  are  scarcely  to  be  overcome.  For  it  is  not  so 
much  the  inclemency  of  the  climate,  or  the  exposure  of 
the  location,  or  the  poorness  of  the  soil,  which  prevents 
the  restoration  of  our  mountaiii  forests  ;  it  is  the  fact 
that  of  the  four  millions  of  acres  covering  the  Adiron- 
dacks, only  eight  hundred  thousand  belong  to  the  State, 
while  the  remaining  three  millions  and  two  hundred 
thousand  acres  are  the  property  of  private  owners — and 
these,  in  general,  have  neither  the  intention  nor  the  de- 
sire to  be  troubled  with  forest  planting.  They  strip  off 
every  valuable  tree,  and  when  their  lands  become  un- 
profitable allow  them  to  be  sold  for  taxes.  In  this  way 
a  great  many  acres  reverted  to  the  original  owner,  the 
State,  as  nobody  found  it  desirable  to  buy  denuded  or 
devastated  wood-lands. 

In  1873  the  ''Park  Commissioners,"  it  is  true,  recom- 
mended that  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  our  State  no 
more  State  lands  should  be  sold,  and  that,  as  lands 
reverted  from  non-payment  of  taxes,  they  be  held  for 
future  forest  mcmagement.  This  advice,  however,  was 
not  acted  upon  until  1885,  when  the  State,  notwithstand- 
ing the  sales  that  had  been  effected  during  the  interval, 
had  again  become  the  owner  of  about  eight  hundred 
thousand  acres  of  wood-lands. 

To  the  Legislature  of  1885  is  due  a  new  and  sound 
departure  in  the  forestry  interests  of  our  State  ;  for  by 
the  act  passed  on  the  15th  day  of  May,  1885,  a  Forest 
Commission  was  established,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
preserve  the  State  forests,  and  the  former  recommenda- 
tion of  the  "  Park  Commissioners  "  was  made  obligatory. 
At  present  none  of  the  State  lands  situate  in  the  coun- 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS,  11 

tics  embracing  the  Adirondack  and  Catskill  mountains 
can  be  sold  or  leased ;  but  every  piece  of  land  situated 
in  those  counties  which  may  in  the  future  be  acquired 
by  the  State,  shall  be  added  to  the  State  lands  and  for- 
ever kept  as  a  forest  preserve. 

From  the  first  annual  report  of  the  State  Forest  Com- 
mission, published  at  Albany  in  1886,  it  appears  that  the 
gentlemen  forming  that  Commission  had  at  that  time  a 
correct  view  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  their  duties,  for 
on  page  12  they  declare  that  they  not  only  must  protect 
the  preserve  against  ravages  by  the  elements  (fire),  and 
against  the  army  of  thieves  and  trespassers  who  are 
plundering  the  State  forests,  but  that  there  should  be 
devised  a  system  "  ivMch  would,  in  time,  make  these 
forests  not  only  self-sustaining  as  to  cost  of  management, 
hut,  in  addition,  a  source  of  wealth  and  revenue  to  the 
commonwealtli.'' 

With  these  words  the  Commissioners  expressed  an  idea 
the  proper  consideration  of  which  would  ensure  the 
introduction  of  systematic  forest  culture.  For  it  was 
not  so  much  the  decreasing  area  of  woods,  nor  the  in- 
creasing demand  for  forest  prijducts,  which  led  in  the 
European  territories  to  the  introduction  of  the  present 
so  highly  esteemed  forest  culture  ;  it  was  the  necessity  of 
deriving  the  highest  possible  permanent  revenue  from 
the  forests.  And  this  dire  necessity  performed  what  for 
want  of  means  and  knowledge  could  not  be  done  in 
former  times.  But  as  soon  as  the  owners  of  large  forests, 
especially  the  corporations,  possessors  of  entailments, 
and  governments  in  Europe,  were  forced  to  look  upon 
the  forests  as  a  perpetual  source  of  revetine,  there  were 
found  the  means  and  the  knowledge  of  scientific  or 
systematic  management  of  forests. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  misconception  in  regard  to  the 
words  "scientific  forestry,"  it  may  here  be  observed  that 


13  FOREST   PLANTING. 

this  exiiression  docs  not  designate  any  exact  science ;  but 
just  such  management  of  forests,  the  practical  results  of 
which  had  been  retraced  to  their  scientific  basis,  and 
were  found  to  be  in  harmony  with  scientific  principles. 
For  this  reason  the  advanced  forest  economy  of  to-day  is 
called  scientific  or  systematic  forestry,  and  this  means  : 
First,  to  continually  have  a  sustained  forestal jiroduction 
from  a  certain  area;  Second,  tJie  natural  regeneration 
of  the  forests  ;  and.  Third,  a  j^rogressive  improvement  of 
the  forests,  instead  of  former  deterioration. 

That  the  introduction  of  systematic  forestry  into  our 
State  forests  would  lead  to  a  revenue  for  the  State  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  provided  the  management  should  be 
entrusted  to  experts.  But  at  present  we  must  drop  this 
question  entirely,  as  we  have  to  concentrate  every  effort 
to  the  restocking  of  the  many  denuded  public  wood- 
lands in  the  State,  and  to  inducing  owners  of  the 
adjoining  private  woods  to  enter  into  a  combination 
among  themselves  and  with  the  public  officers,  in  order 
to  protect  their  wood-lands  against  damages,  and  to  im- 
prove them  by  adopting  the  same  measures  which  ought 
to  be  maintained  in  the  State  preserve.  For  it  is  a  great 
drawback  to  tlie  effective  management  of  our  State  forests 
that  they  are  not  compact  bodies  of  larger  extent,  but 
mostly  disconnected  plots,  situated  in  different  counties, 
ranging  from  a  few  acres  up  to  many  thousands,  aud 
usually  surrounded  by  private  lands,  and,  therefore,  in- 
accessible by  roads.  As  systematic  forestry  cannot  be 
advantageously  applied  except  on  larger  areas  of  compact 
bodies  of  wood-lands,  it  is  evident  that  means  must  ])e 
devised  to  urge  upon  the  adjoining  owners  of  tbose 
priyate  wood-lands,  the  necessity  of  entering  into  a  com- 
bination with  the  managers  of  the  State  forests,  and  of 
a  preconcerted  action  with  them  in  regard  to  the  pre- 
servation of  their  forests.     There  is  no  doubt  that  in 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  13 

the  future  such  a,  combination  •will  be  agreed  to,  but  not 
until  the  managers  of  the  State  forests  upon  the  larger 
tracts  have  shown  that  a  systematic  forest  economy  is 
more  profitable  than  the  reckless  felling  of  trees  now 
going  on  in  the  private  forests. 

It  might  be  advisable  for  the  State  to  buy  up  small 
plots  in  limited  numbers  for  the  purpose  of  rounding  off 
the  boundaries  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  larger  wood 
tracts  owned  by  the  State.  But  to  obtain  control  over 
all  the  Adirondack  forests  by  a  general  purchase — as  is 
recommended  by  some — would  be  for  many  reasons  very 
objectionable.  Owners  of  those  forests  in  the  Adirondacks 
which  are  necessary  for  securing  a  continual  &ow  of  water 
to  the  rivers  and  streams  could — as  we  v/ill  see  in  Chapter 
IV — ^be  compelled  by  legislative  measures  to  manage  their 
woods  so  as  to  keep  the  grounds  covered  and  protected 
against  the  influence  of  sun  and  air ;  and  this  is  the  only 
object  it  is  desirable  for  the  State  to  control  the  man- 
agement of  private  forests  of  that  character.  But  even  if 
this  cpiestion  was,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  ''right  of 
eminent  domain,"  decided  in  favor  of  the  State,  our 
government  would  not  be  able  to  undertake  the  exercise 
of  this  privilege  unless  there  were  secured  for  the  service 
of  the  State  men  who  understand  how  to  systematically 
manage  those  mountain  forests,  which  aie  called  pro- 
tective forests. 

]f  we  want  to  do  our  full  duty  toward  those  who  are  to 
come  after  us  in  this  richly  endowed  country,  we  must 
repair,  before  it  is  too  late,  the  damages  done  to  the 
mountain  forests  in  our  State  by  the  avarice  and 
ignorance  of  the  last  two  generations  ;  and  if  the  Forest 
Commission  adhere  to  their  programme,  outlined  in  the 
cited  first  annual  report,  we  will  succeed  in  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old,  splendid  wild  forests  of  the  Adirondacks. 
For  properly  preserved  forests  have  : 


14  FOREST   PLANTING. 

(1)  To  be  guarded  by  officers  from  the  encroachment 
of  persons  who  have,  no  right  in  them,  and  from  abuses 
and  infractions  of  the  Law  by  those  who  have. 

(2)  To  be  i^rotected  from  injury  of  various  kinds,  as 
for  instance,  from  fires  or  other  elementary  damage,  from 
destruction  caused  by  j)asturing  farm  animals  or  game, 
and  from  injuries  caused  by  insects. 

(3)  In  a  properly  conducted  forest  preserve  there  must 
be  performed  the  following  princijial  labors  : 

(a)  Annual  felling  of  mature,  defective  or  dead  trees, 
and  their  transportation  in  such  a  way  that  no  damage 
shall  be  done  to  young  growing  trees. 

(5)  The  periodical  thinning  out  of  places  where  the 
trees  have  sprung  up  too  thickly,  in  order  to  effect  a 
more  vigorous  growth  to  the  remaining  trees.  At  the 
same  time  the  worthless  kinds  of  trees  are  cleared  out  to 
give  room  for  the  more  valuable. 

(c)  Vacant  spots  have  to  be  filled  out  by  natural 
reproduction  of  the  trees,  either  by  shoots,  sprouts  and 
layers  from  the  stumps  and  roots,  or  by  the  natural  sow- 
ing of  the  seed  of  the  parent  trees  ;  or,  finally,  if  in  the 
way  mentioned  a  reproduction  of  the  trees  i''  not  prac- 
ticable, artificial  replanting,  such  as  sowing  the  seed  or 
planting  young  trees  raised  in  forest  nurseries,  has  to  be 
resorted  to,  although  this  should  be  done  as  rarely  as 
possible. 

From  the  foregoing  we  perceive  that  the  duties  of  the 
authorities  in  charge  of  our  State  forest  i^reserve  do  not 
end  when  the  grown  up  or  planted  trees  have  been  cared 
for  and  protected  to  their  full  growth,  but  when  they 
have  been  cut  down  and  others  started  in  their  places. 

If  our  forest  preserve  were  conducted  in  some  such 
way  we  should  not  any  longer  be  compelled  to  witness 
every  year  the  dying  away  of  the  enormous  masses  of 
trees  and  going  to  rot,  killing  young  saplings  and  pre- 


IMPORTANCE   OF   FOEEST   CULTURE.  15 

venting  others  from  springing  up  ;  besides  furnishing 
the  materials  for  originating  and  maintaining  destructive 
forest  fires.  These  dead  trees  are  the  headquarters  for 
breeding  beetles,  bags  and  other  insects  which  prey  upon 
the  sound  trees  and  destroy  them  long  before  they  have 
reached  their  maturity. 

Under  all  circumstances  steps  should  at  once  be  taken 
to  establish  on  a  proper  place  in  the  Adirondacks  a 
nursery  for  raising  the  principal  common  forest  trees,  to 
be  used  upon  the  denuded  State  lands.  This  institution 
could  later  on  be  enlarged  and  also  serve  both  the  pur- 
jioses  of  an  experimental  station  for  forest  trees  and  a 
forest  school  for  training  and  educating  good  foresters. 
The  best  crude  material  for  this  class  of  men  our  Forest 
Commissioners  will  undoubtedly  find  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Adirondacks,  and  if  they  will  give  those  men 
an  opportunity  to  become  conversant  with  the  practical 
instructions  approved  by  systematic  forestry,  they  will  no 
longer  ridicule  the  possibility  of  finding  scientific  foresters 
among  the  denizens  of  the  North  Woods.  (See  Second 
Annual  Eeportof  the  Forest  Commission,  Albany,  1887.) 


CHAPTER    II. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    FOREST    CULTURE. 

T3ERE  are  over  six  million  acres  of  wood-lands  in  the 
twenty-six  million  acres  of  land  in  our  State.  The  great 
interests  involved  in  such  a  vast  area  should  in  them- 
selves lead  to  a  close  study  of  everything  pertaining  to 
the  nature  of  forests,  and  their  influence  upon  the  w^elfare 
of  our  commonwealth.     Moreover,  the  State  being  an 


16  FOEEST    PLANTING. 

owner  of  about  800^,000  acres  of  those  wood-lands,*  the 
revenues  of  which  would  amount  to  a  considerable  sum, 
if  the  forests  Avere  properly  managed,  and  every  tax-payer 
should  look  into  the  matter  and  endeavor  to  help  in  iu- 
troducing  a  system  by  which  the  State  forests  could  be 
made  i^rofitable.  Up  to  the  present  time  they  have  not 
yielded  any  income  to  the  State,  but  are  considered  by 
the  people  living  in  their  neighborhood  as  a  j)iece  of 
*'  Commons,"  from  which  they  have  a  right  to  cut  down, 
and  take  away  what  pleases  them.  It  was  a  good  step 
in  the  right  direction  when  the  Forest  Commissioners 
hunted  down  the  thieves  and  endeavored  to  put  a  stop  to 
that  disgraceful  traffic,  f 

Another  reason  why  we  should  pay  more  heed  to  the 
forest  matters  of  the  State  arises  from  the  circumstance 
that  agriculture  and  industry  are  daily  increasing  their 
demands  for  certain  kinds  of  wood,  and  that  there  is  no 
likelihood  of  obtaining  any  material  which  could  be 
entirely  substituted  for  these  woods,  as  is  the  case  with 
coal  and  iron,  which  have  encroached  for  some  time  upon 
the  old  privileges  of  certain  kinds  of  trees  used  formerly 
exclusively  for  fuel  and  timber.  True,  for  a  certain 
period  we  can,  after  the  exhaustion  of  our  own  resources, 
import  lumber  and  timber  from  other  states,  esi)ecially 
from  Canada.  But,  as  the  same  mania  of  destroying  the 
forests  from  which  our  own  State  up  to  a  recent  date 
has  suffered,  is  raging  in  that  country,  we  cannot  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time  rely  upon  importations, 

*  The  State  forests  are  situated  in  the  Adirondack  wilderness,  except- 
ing about  50,000  acres  in  the  Catsliill  region,  most  of  which  are  in 
Ulster  Co. 

t  It  is  a  sad  but  true  observation  that  the  moral  views  of  our  people  in 
regard  to  public  property  have  a  much  lower  standard  than  is  enter- 
tained in  the  transaction  of  private  business.  This  deplorable  neglect 
of  the  duties  owed  to  public  affairs  on  the  part  of  the  people  can  only 
be  remedied  by  giving  to  them  the  same  supervision  as  to  private  affairs. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FOREST  CULTURE.         17 

and,  therefore,  we  should  prepare  to  satisfy  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  demands  of  our  people  by  home  production. 
It  is  very  fortunate  that  coal  and  iron  now  cover  many 
demands,  which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  satisfied  by 
still  more  recklessly  cutting  down  our  forests.  And  it 
is  very  favorable  to  our  growing  industries  that  we  can, 
at  present,  easily  import  from  other  States  nearly  any  kind 
of  wood  now  in  use.  However,  we  should  not  trifle  with 
the  time  that  is  thus  left  to  us  for  considering  and 
changing  the  modes  of  the  present  treatment  of  forests ; 
but  utilize  it  for  the  introduction  of  systematic  forest 
culture,  although  the  benefits  of  which  will  not  be  fully 
enjoyed  save  by  futiire  generations. 

The  present  indications  are  that  in  the  further  develop- 
ment of  our  State  the  demand  for  those  kinds  of  wood 
which  are  especially  used  in  our  industries,  will  be  always 
on  the  increase.  And,  therefore,  these  indications  must 
guide  us  in  many  other  questions  which  will  arise,  when 
it  is  to  be  determined  what  kind  of  forest  trees  to  grow 
in  the  various  localities.  We  may  follow  this  guidance 
the  more  safely,  as  Avitli  the  decreasing  stock  of  wood 
for  industrial  purposes,  there  will  be  undoubtedly  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  its  price,  and,  therefore,  presum- 
ably the  net  revenue  from  systematically  managed  forests 
will  in  the  future  be  much  larger  than  we  are  at  present 
able  to  imagine. 

As  to  the  revenue  derived  from  well  managed  state 
forests,  the  official  reports  published  yearly  by  the  vari- 
ous German  governments  are  very  instructive.  They 
give  not  only  full  information  in  regard  to  the  average 
production  of  wood  and  the  income  from  the  forests,  but 
also  explain  the  particulars  of  the  management  by  which 
their  success  has  been  attained.  These  publications  have 
greatly  encouraged  the  introduction  of  scientific  forest 
culture  in  wood-lands  belonging  both  to  corporations  and 
private  persons   in    Germany.     From   one   of   the  last 


18  FOREST   PLANTING. 

publications,  we  see  that  the  yearly  average  increase  in 
wood  to  the  acre  was  : 

Limiher  and  Timber.  Smaller  \Vood. 

In  Prussia 0.84  cubic  yard.  1. 04  cubic  yard. 

"Bavaria 1.34         "  1.60 

"  Elsace-Lothringen 1.20         "  1.68 

"Baden 1.24         "  1.80 

"  Hesse 1.60         "  2.06 

"Saxony 1.78         "  2.16 

"  Wurtemberg. -..  1.86         "  2.22 

The  yearly  average  income  was  to  the  acre  : 

Gross  Amount.    Net 

In  Prussia.. Sl.60  §0.70 

"Bavaria 2.90  1.22 

"Hesse 4.02  2.65 

"Baden.--. 4.60  3.68 

"  Wxu'temberg 4.65  2.79 

"  Elsace-Lotluingen 4.75  2.69 

"Saxony 4.85  3.50 

As  to  the  condition  and  productiveness  of  forests,  much 
certainly  depends  upon  soil  and  climate,  and,  therefore, 
the  southern  German  states  with  their  more  congenial 
climate  and  soil  are  expected  to  yield  a  larger  crop  of 
forestry  products,  and  consequently  greater  revenues 
than  the  northern  states.  But  the  marked  difference 
in  the  proceeds  of  the  named  states  is  caused  by  the 
fact  that  scientific  forest  culture  was  introduced  in 
the  southern  German  states  much  earlier  than  in  the 
northern.  The  treatment  of  the  forests  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony  is  conceded  to  be  superior  to  any  other,  and, 
therefore,  the  output  and  net  increase  there  is  the 
largest. 

To  the  private  owner  the  revenues  from  forests  are  of 
course  still  larger,  he  being  able  to  make  of  every  forestry 
product  a  much  more  profitable  use  than  the  state,  while 
the  expenses  of  a  private  management  are  far  below  those 
of  the  government  or  corporations. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  no  wonder  that  forest 
culture  on  the  eastern  hemisphere  of  our  globe  is  making 
great  advances.     For  centuries  there  progressive  science 


PROPORTIOli   OF   WOOD-LAN"DS.  19 

advocated  only  one  side  of  field  culture,  viz.,  the  agri- 
culture ;  but  now  it  is  also  vindicating  the  natural  rights 
of  the  other  side,  viz.,  the  forest  culture.  The  comhina- 
tion  of  these  ideas  is  expressed  by  the  principle  that 
wherever  agriculture  does  not  prove  remunerative,  while 
the  cultivation  of  forests  would  indicate  material  profits, 
there  is  the  proper  place  for  sylviculture. 

Finally,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  fine  forests,  besides  giving  inexpressible  charms 
and  attractions  to  the  country,  and  thereby  exercising  a 
refining  influence  upon  the  moral  and  sesthetical  senti- 
ments of  the  people  in  general,  serve  as  a  resort  for  in- 
valids, owing  to  the  air  which  imparts  vigor  to  the  re- 
cuperative powers  of  those  who  are  weak  of  nerve  and 
broken  in  health.  This  is  especially  applicable  to  the 
Adirondack  and  Catskill  mountain  forests,  wdiither  every 
year  hundreds  of  thousands  of  those  who  have  lost  their 
energy  in  the  daily  battle  of  city  life  flee  to  seek  restora- 
tion by  inhaling  the  invigorating  mountain  air,  and 
enjoying  out-of-door  life. 


CHAPTER    III. 


PROPORTION   OF  THE  WOOD-LANDS   TO   THE    TOTAL 
AREA  OF  A   COUNTRY. 

The  influence  of  forests  upon  the  climate  of  a  country 
is  undoubtedly  important,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
forests  exercise  also  a  marked  effect  upon  the  aqueous 
conditions  of  a  certain  territory.  But,  as  far  as  experi- 
ence in  this  State  goes,  the  devastation  of  the  forests 
on  the  plains  Las  not  essentially  diminished  the  an- 
nual quantity  of  rain,  although  the  general  decreasing 
depth  of  the  Hudson   River  convincingly   tells  of  the 


20  FOREST   PLANTING. 

losses  caused  by  devastating  the  head  waters  of  that 
stream  at  the  summits  and  slopes  of  tlie  Adirondacks. 
The  destructive  methods  of  forest  exploitation  with  us 
are  felt  by  the  increasing  abrupt  changes  of  cold  and 
heat,  and  of  dry  and  wet  spells.  Forests  retain  much 
longer  the  humidity  received  in  the  shape  of  rain,  snow, 
dew,  etc,  than  the  open  fields,  and  they,  therefore,  pro- 
mote the  frequency  of  showers  when  a  current  of  moist 
air  strikes  them.  Owing  to  this  peculiarity  we  justly 
consider  the  forests  as  equalizers  in  the  distribution  of 
rainfall  during  the  seasons,  and,  as  the  fury  of  the  violent 
winds  which  cause  the  abrupt  changes  of  temperature 
can  only  be  broken  by  a  mass  of  elastic  trees,  we  cannot 
deny  that  woods  located  either  on  the  plains  or  moun- 
tains are  the  only  means  to  mitigate  the  sudden  changes 
from  heat  to  cold.* 

But  the  most  beneficial  influence  is  exercised  by  the 
forests  to  the  neighboring  territoiy,  as  their  capability  of 
receiving  great  quantities  of  moisture,  and  retaining 
them  by  protecting  the  soil  against  swift  evaporation, 
renders  them  the  most  reliable  reservoirs  for  the  water 
in  the  subsoil,  an  element  of  the  greatest  importance  for 
a  successful  pursuit  of  agriculture.  It  is  a  fact  that 
wherever  large  tracts  of  woods  have  been  cut  down,  the 
level  of  the  ground  water  has  been  lowered  sometimes  to 
ten  inches  and  more,  and  by  that  the  cultivation  of 
many  plants  which  formerly  thrived  in  such  places  has 
been  made  impossible.  Clover,  for  instance,  was  raised 
in  ancient  times  in  Greece.  After  the  country  became 
denuded  of  forests,  the  culture  of  clover,  requiring  a 
moist  atmosphere,  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  passed  from 

*  Unfortunately  our  principal  mountains  extend  from  north  to 
south.  If  they  ran  from  ea^t  to  west,  we  should  have  a  climate 
such  as  Italy  enjoys,  as  the  most  troublesome  winds  come  to  us  from  the 
northwest,  aj^ainst  which  the  present  formation  of  our  mountains  offers 
no  protection. 


PROPORTION^    OF   WOOD-LANDS.  21 

there  to  Italy.  But  the  devastation  of  the  forests  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  "migration  of  the  nations"  caused 
such  droughts  tliat  the  culture  of  clover  had  to  be  given 
up  in  Italy,and  it  found  a  new  start  in  southern  Germany. 
Here  clover  has  been  cultivated  for  centuries  with  the 
most  pronounced  success.  But  during  the  last  century 
the  wooded  area  has  been  much  encroached  upon,  and 
since  that  time  clover  culture  began  to  decrease  there, 
and  to  move  into  the  moister  climate  of  north  Germany. 
The  consideration  of  the  importance  of  the  woods  for 
a  country  has  led  to  the  question  as  to  the  proportion 
the  wooded  area  of  a  country  should  bear  to  the 
whole  territory,  in  order  to  secure  the  full  benefit  of 
the  forests  for  the  state.  The  economists  generally 
contend  that  for  this  purpose  twenty  to  twenty -five 
per  cent  of  the  total  territory  should  be  kept  in  wood. 
If  this  be  true,  our  Empire  State  would  come  up  fully  to 
this  standard,  as  she  comprises  6,257,084  acres  of  wood- 
lands among  her  total  of  25,059,266  acres.  But  it  is  a 
sheer  imjiossibility  to  determine  once  for  all  upon  such  a 
general  rule.  The  proper  answer  depends  upon  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  question  is  raised.  If  it  be  intended 
to  establish  a  normal  proportion  between  the  wooded  and 
the  not  wooded  area  of  a  country  in  regard  to  its  general 
culture,  and  especially  to  its  climatic  and  agricultural 
conditions,  much  will  depend  upon  the  geological 
formation  and  situation  of  the  territory.  The  fertile 
sites  along  the  shores  of  the  oceans  need  no  woods, 
as  the  air  currents  laden  with  moisture  from  the 
sea  regulate,  in  the  most  beneficial  way,  the  climate  of 
such  country,  and  the  easy  access  of  vessels  from  all 
lands  secure  the  importation  of  whatever  wood  is  wanted. 
Just  the  reverse  is  it  with  mountainous  regions.  There 
nature  itself  has  necessitated  a  much  larger  percentage 
of  wood-lands  than  the  above  named,  while  in  the  broad 
plains  of  the  interior  of  a  large  country  that  percentage 


22  FOREST   PLANTIXG. 

miglit  be  sufficient  to  retain  the  good  effects  of  forests, 
esjiecially  if  they  are  jjrojDerly  distributed  over  the 
country. 

But  if  the  question  be  how  to  determine  the  portion  of 
tlie  wood-lands  of  a  country  to  tlie  not  wooded  areas,  in 
order  to  raise  a  quantity  of  wood  for  fuel,  timber  and 
lumber,  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
proper  answer  cannot  be  given  without  the  help  of  a 
statistical  bureau  for  forest  matters. 

TJie  duty  of  such  a  bureau  should  be  to  ascertain  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  wood  which  annually  can  be 
cut  without  injuring  the  sustained  growth  of  the  forests, 
and  to  compare  this  amount  with  the  demands  of  the 
population  for  the  different  kinds  of  "wood.  If  the  coun- 
try be  able  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  inhabitants, 
we  call  the  proportion  adequate,  otherwise  there  must  be 
importation. 

Entirely  excluded  from  the  question  regarding  the 
I)roportion  of  the  wooded  area  of  a  country  to  the  not 
wooded  are  the  so-called  ''protective  or  shelter-forests," 
i.  e.,  such  as  would,  when  cut  down,  cause  irreparable 
damage  to  the  public.  These  forests,  which  will  be 
treated  of  in  the  next  chapter,  must  be  preserved  at  all 
events,  and  be  managed  in  the  public  interest. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

RELATIONS  OF  GOVERNMENTS  TO  FORESTS. 

The  necessity  of  forests  to  the  permanent  welfare  of 
the  commonwealth  on  one  hand,  and  the  rapid  destruc- 
tion of  the  woods  by  private  owners  on  the  other,  led  in 
the  old  world  many  economists  to  the  assumption  that  it 
would  be  better  for  the  prosperity  of  a  state  if  all  forests 


RELATIONS   OF   GOVER^TMENTS   TO    FORESTS.  33 

were  owned,  or  at  least  controlled,  by  the  governments. 
To  the  American  mind  this  view  seems  incredible,  as 
our  opinions  regarding  the  administration  of  private 
property  are  just  to  the  contrary.  We  insist  upon  the 
least  interference  from  public  authorities  with  the  man- 
agement of  private  property.  But  when  we  consider 
that  the  benefits  derived  from  the  forests  consist  not 
only  in  revenues  drawn  from  the  forest  vegetation,  but 
also  in  the  advantages  bestowed  upon  the  development 
and  prosperity  of  the  country  by  the  influence  of  the 
forests  in  regard  to  climate,  weather,  protection  of  the 
soil,  regulation  of  the  flowing  waters,  etc.,  we  cannot 
deny  that  certain  forests  should  be  considered  as  puilic 
entailments,  given  to  us  for  our  own  use  with  the  direc- 
tion to  transfer  them  in  the  best  possible  shape  to  the 
generations  that  will  live  after  us,  and  who  will,  like  us, 
be  compelled  to  make  the  same  use  of  their  beneficence. 

For  this  reason  it  is  claimed  that  the  State  should 
own  :  (1)  The  forests  and  areas  surrounding  the  water- 
sheds of  the  navigable  rivers  and  their  tributaries,  in 
order  to  secure  to  the  country  a  continual  and  undisturbed 
water  supply,  on  which  not  only  depend  navigation  and 
commerce,  but  also  agriculture  and  manufacturing  in- 
dustries.* 

(3)  The  sand-downs  or  dunes  along  the  sea  coasts  and 
all  infertile  tracts  containing  shifting  sands  which  en- 
danger the  adjoining  fertile  lands,  unless  kept  continu- 
ally in  wood. 

(3)  Every  area  unfit  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  well 
adapted  for  forest  culture,  if  the  owner  should  not  be 
able  or  willing  to  plant  forest  trees  thereupon. 

*  The  adaee,  "  the  forest  waters  the  farm,"  is  not  a  mere  saying- ;  it  is 
undeniably  true  that  without  a  proper  management  of  forests  in  civil- 
ized and  densely  populated  countries  no  remunerative  agriculture  is 
practicable  ;  nay,  without  a  proper  presei-vation  of  certain  forests,  none 
of  the  several  branches  of  the  politioo-economical  household  of  a  people 
can  be  in  a  prospering  condition. 


S4  FOREST   PLANTING. 

If  this  theory  be  accepted  as  correct,  and  justified  by 
the  principles  governing  our  law  in  regard  to  the  right 
of  eminent  domain,  at  least  the  claims  sub  1  and  2  would 
bring  the  entire  sea  coast  of  our  State,  the  Adirondacks, 
and  Catskill  mountains,  under  the  control  of  the  State, 
those  mountains  enclosing  the  head-waters  of  nearly 
all  principal  rivers  of  our  State,  especially  those  of  the 
great  Hudson  Kiver.  The  forests  belonging  to  these  first 
two  classes  are  called  "  protective  forests,"  because  they 
have  proved  necessary  for  averting  irreparable  damages, 
which  would  befall  the  commonwealth  if  they  were  cut 
down  at  once.  In  the  interest  of  the  public  welfare  and 
the  general  culture  of  the  countries,  the  European  gov- 
ernments have  obtained,  if  not  the  full  property,  at  least 
such  control  of  those  classes  of  woods  as  to  force  the 
owners  to  manage  their  property  without  hurting  the 
public  interests.  Should  the  present  policy  of  our  State 
Government,  outlined  in  Sees.  7,  8  and  9  of  the  Act 
passed  May  15,  1885,  be  strictly  enforced,  there  is  a  good 
prospect  that  the  Empire  State  in  due  time  will  be  the 
undisputed  owner  of  the  denuded  wood-lands  in  the 
higher  regions  of  the  Adirondacks.  These  lands  are  only 
capable  of  bearing — if  anything  at  all — slowly  growing 
forest  trees.  As  the  expenses  of  reforesting  such  tracts 
would  far  surpass  the  income  derived  for  several  genera- 
tions to  come,  it  is  easily  understood  how  private  owners 
are  inclined  to  abandon  such  property,  allowing  the  State 
by  tax  sale  to  come  again  into  possession  of  lands,  the 
ownership  of  which  never  ought  to  have  gone  to  private 
parties.*     The  State  can  safely  take  in  hand  the  replant- 


*The  State  of  New  York  has  also  had  the  advantage  of  formerly 
owning  most  of  the  wood-lands  in  the  Adirondacks.  But  the  particular 
notion,  entertained  still  by  our  Federal  Government,  that  public  lands, 
without  much  discrimination  in  regard  to  economic  value  to  the  coun- 
try, should  be  disposed  of  as  quickly  as  possible,  led  to  the  complete 
sale  of  the  most  beautiful  wooded  tracts,  at  prices  ranging  between  five 


^v  tirXART 


RELATIONS   OF   GOVERISTMEN-TS   TO    FORESTS.  25 

mg  of  those  lands,  as  it  is  not  looking  upon  the  forest 
products  as  a  source  of  immediate  profit,  but  upon  the 
important  economic  effects  which  well  cared  for  forests 
of  this  kind  contribute  to  the  general  weal  and  pros- 
perity of  our  country.  Moreover,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  State,  by  introducing  a  systematic  cultivation  and 
exi")loitation,  will  be  enabled  to  cover — without  prejudice 
to  the  sustained  growth  of  the  woods — the  actual  ex- 
penses incurred  in  the  difficult  operation  of  reforesting 
the  denuded  areas  of  the  high  mountains. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  proper  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  to  the  difference  between  net  proceeds 
obtained  in  a  business  which  is  conducted  by  a  jirivate 
party,  and  that  which  is  managed  by  the  commonwealth. 
The  general  economy  of  a  people,  it  is  true,  consists  of 
the  total  of  the  households  of  the  single  individuals,  but 
this  fact  does  not  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  highest 
success  with  the  former  is  attained  when  the  net  proceeds 
(or  rents  of  the  soil)  in  the  management  of  the  private 
households  have  reached  the  highest  point.  For  the 
determination  of  what  are  considered  expenses  incurred 
by  the  production  is  different  in  the  two  kinds  of  manage- 
ment. While  the  private  person  puts  every  expenditure 
for  the  production  to  the  debit  account  of  his  business, 
the  management  of  j^ublic  property  considers  only  such 
disbursements  as  real  expenses  (i.  e.,  as  diminution  of  its 
income)  as  do  not  afford  an  immediate  benefit  to  the 
people.  For  instance,  if  a  private  person  possesses  a  mine 
which  cost  every  year  1100,000,  in  order  to  obtain  its 
yearly  output,  valued  at  1100,000,  there  is  no  net  profit, 
and  the  owner  of  the  mine  would  hardly  be  inclined  to 

and  ten  cents  per  acre,  with  easy  terms  of  payment  at  that.  Both  houses 
of  the  last  Legislature  passed  a  bill  empowering,  with  certain  restric- 
tions, the  Forest  Commissioners  to  buy  up  wood-lands  situated  in  the 
Forest  Preserve  at  figures  not  exceeding  $1.50  per  acre.  This  bill  has 
now  become  a  law. 


•^6  FOEEST   PLAN"TI5q-G. 

continue  tlie  enterprise,  unless  prompted  by  tlie  cliarita- 
ble  desire  to  give  some  men  employment.  From  a  qnito 
different  standpoint  would  in  this  case  the  question  of 
the  profitableness  be  considered,  should  the  government 
take  this  work  in  hand.  The  $100,000  j)aid  for  labor, 
machinery,  etc.,  would  then  be  looked  upon  as  benefiting 
the  people,  and  the  nation  would  have  by  the  continued 
exploitation  of  the  mine  a  profit  of  1100,000  every  year, 
that  being  the  sum  which  had  been  distributed  for  labor, 
etc.  The  same  principles  govern  the  profitableness  of  State 
forests,  unless  a  State  is  forced  or  willing  to  use  them  a? 
a  source  of  revenue.  If  after  all  exiDenditures  and  re- 
ceipts there  be  a  surplus,  all  the  better.  But  even  if, 
after  paying  the  salaries  of  the  officers,  the  v/ages  of  the 
laborers,  the  cost  for  cultivating,  planting,  etc.,  nothing 
of  the  receipts  be  left,  those  items  would  not  be  regarded 
as  expenses  in  the  same  sense  as  a  business  man  wouid 
view  them,  but  Avould  represent  a  real  gain  for  the  com- 
monwealth. In  other  words  :  owners  of  private  forests 
endeavor  to  obtain  from  their  property  the  largest  pot3si- 
ble  income  ;  whereas  the  managers  of  State  forests  should 
aim  at  the  highest  j)ossible  gross  amount  of  revenue  from 
the  wooded  j)ublic  domain. 

The  advocates  of  state  socialism  use  this  maxim  for 
justifying  their  theorem  that  every  business  which  is  car- 
ried on  with  the  intention  of  accumulating  wealth,  should 
be  conducted  by  the  government  or  public  authorities, 
and  all  net  proceeds  should  be  distributed  among  the 
employees.  But  in  the  public  economy  the  natural  prin- 
ciples are  only  effective  and  applicable  as  far  as  they  are 
not  modified  by  such  laws  as  are  acting  alongside  with 
them,  or  which  are  even  opposed  to  them.  In  our 
democratic  republic  the  doctrine  that  tke  State  must 
only  interfere  "to  protect  freedom  of  labor," is  in  regard 
to  the  social  question  considered  a  corner-stone  of  our 
government,  and  therefore  we  do  not  allow  the  public 


RELATIONS   OF   GOVERNMENTS   TO    FORESTS.  27 

authorities  to  undertake  any  enterprises,  except  sucli  as 
are  necessary  for  the  promotion  of  the  public  welfare  ; 
and  to  this  certainly  belongs  the  care  of  the  areas  Avhich 
secure  to  our  navigable  rivers  a  constant  flow. 

As  for  3,  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived  with  us,  in 
which  we  have  to  be  so  sharply  on  the  lookout  for  utiliz- 
ing every  piece  of  land.  But  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
something  should  be  done  to  make  useful  the  3,526,030 
acres  of  the  State  lands  which  are  by  the  last  census 
registered  as  wild  and  uncultivated.  This  area  comprises 
more  than  one-eigMli  of  the  entire  territory  of  the  State,  is 
mostly  hilly  or  mountainous,  has  been  stripped  of  all 
trees  by  their  owners,  and,  after  having  been  used  for  a 
few  years  as  pasture,  became  barren  by  the  sun,  which 
burnt  the  grasses  up,  and  by  the  rains,  which  washed  the 
fertile  surface  soil  down  the  hills.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
were  these  three  and  a  half  millions  of  acres  planted  with 
forest  trees,  the  country  would  receive  a  great  benefit,  and 
by  a  proper  management,  the  lands  would  yield  a  satis- 
factory revenue. 

However,  this  does  not  furnish  the  State  with  sufficient 
reasons  for  exercising  its  right  of  resumption  by  eminent 
domain;  but  there  is  a  good  opportunity  for  the  Croesuses 
of  our  country  to  combine  business  with  beneficence  to- 
ward the  people.  For  whoever  is  able  to  sj)end  100,000 
dollars  without  being  compelled  to  look  eagerly  for  any 
revenue  from  this  money  during  the  next  generation,  can 
make  no  better  investment  and  bequest  to  his  heirs,  than 
to  buy  up  large  tracts  of  the  wild  lands  in  our  State,  and 
plant  forest  trees  thereupon.  By  a  sound  systematic 
management,  the  purchaser  may  safely  expect  that  in  the 
course  of  time  the  net  proceeds  of  his  investment  will  at 
least  equal  the  amount  he  would  receive,  if  the  invested 
money  was  entrusted  to  a  savings  bank.  In  the  ''old 
world  "  large  tracts  of  forest  lands  are  principally  select- 
ed as  family  entailments,  both  on  account  of  the  safety  of 


28  FOREST   TLANTING. 

such  investments,  and  the  increase  of  the  revenues  in  the 
future  time.  With  us,  entailments,  containing  provisions 
beyond  the  second  generation,  are  against  the  law.  But, 
unless  the  Legislature  should  find  it  advisable  to  exempt 
this  special  case  for  economical  reasons  from  the  general 
rule,  the  members  of  a  family  in  a  corporative  capacity 
could  attain  the  desired  object,  and  the  very  rich  men 
could  in  this  way  ^irovide  for  their  posterity,  and  at  the 
same  time  benefit  their  country  and  fellow  men.  There 
are  in  the  State  of  New  York  many  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  sandy  lands  which  scarcely  return  the 
cost  of  cultivation  for  agricultural  operations.  For  five 
acres  of  sand  need  five  times  more  outlay  than  one 
acre  of  good  land,  they  require  nearly  five  times  as  much 
seed  and  manure  as  one  acre  of  good  land,  but  they  yield 
not  a  larger  crop  than  the  one  acre  of  good  land;  in  other 
words,  sandy  lands,  or  such  infertile  lands  as  are  de- 
ficient in  the  principal  constituents  of  a  fertile  soil,  do 
not  pay  at  all  to  the  farmer,  because  to  fertilize  them, 
there  would  be  involved  more  expenses  than  in  the  pur- 
chase of  the  most  fertile  grounds.  An  exception  could 
only  be  stated,  if  the  farm  be  situated  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  large  city,  where  additional  manure  can  be  procured 
cheaply,  and  where  the  farm  products  can  be  sold  at  a 
much  higher  jirice  than  in  the  distant  country.  Were 
all  the  unprofitable  sand  lands  in  our  State  to  be  planted 
with  forest  trees,  the  owners  of  them  need  fear  no  more 
disappointments  in  regard  to  the  crops  of  sandy  soil,  but 
could  confidently  hope  that  the  future  would  reward  their 
efforts  ;  under  all  circumstances  they  could  be  assured 
that  their  forest  planting  was  a  permanent  improvement 
to  the  farm,  and  would  show  its  full  value  at  a  sale  of 
the  farm,  this  being  the  time  when  every  farm  improve- 
ment is  realized  financially. 


GOVERNMENT   ASSISTANCE   TO    FOREST   CULTURE.       29 


CHAPTER    V. 

ASSISTANCE    FROM    THE    GOVERNMENT    TO    FOREST 

CULTURE— ESTABLISHMENT    OF   FOREST  SCHOOLS 

FOR    TRAINING    FORESTERS. 

The  American  theory  of  State  activity  does  not  favor 
any  system  of  a  paternal  nature.  We  therefore  would  not 
be  inclined  to  encourage  forest  growing  by  awarding  jire- 
miums  or  other  pecuniary  benefits  to  those  who  under- 
take the  restocking  of  their  denuded  woodlands.  How- 
ever, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  furnish  the  facilities  by  which  tlie  citizens 
may  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  for  enabling  them 
to  secure  all  the  advantages  which  arise  from  the  scien- 
tific treatment  of  forests. 

This  view  on  the  subject  has  been  taken  by  our  Legis- 
lature and  framed  in  Sect.  18  of  the  Forestry  Act  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  The  forest  commission  shall  take  such  measures  as 
"  the  department  of  public  instruction,  the  regents  of 
"the  university  and  the  forest  commission  may  approve, 
"for  awakening  an  interest  in  behalf  of  forestry  in  the 
"public  schools,  academies  and  colleges  of  the  State,  and 
"of  imparting  some  degree  of  elementary  instruction 
"upon  this  subject  therein." 

If  this  provision  were  carried  out,  the  Empire  State Avould 
inaugurate  a  new  era  in  political  economy,  and  would  lay 
the  foundation  upon  which  to  build  the  science  of  sys- 
tematic forest  culture.  Then  we  would  bo  inspired  with 
the  hope  of  having  called  into  productivity  the  3,526,030 
acres  of  Avild  lands  lying  within  our  State,  and  which  do 
not  contribute  one  tithe  to  its  wealth.  Expei-ience  teaches 
ns  that  in  whatever  country  profitable  and  systematic 
management  of  the  forests  has  been  successfully  Intro- 


30  FOEEST    TLAXTIXG. 

(luced,  the  first  stop  to  it  was  tlie  establislimcnt  of  schools 
of  forestry.  For  men  educated  in  such  schools  become 
not  only  fit  for  their  vocation,  but  consider  iheir  position 
as  a  trust,  and  perform  their  duty  to  the  Government,  in- 
stigated not  only  by  their  fealty  to  the  i:)ublic  authorities, 
but  by  a  professional  pride  which  makes  dear  to  them  the 
forests  given  to  their  care  and  protection.  From  unskilled, 
hired  men  you  cannot  expect  such  devotion  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  position  us  is  developed  in  the  trained  for- 
ester. That  man  will  always  do  his  full  duty  even  at  the 
peril  of  his  own  life. 

Whether  our  public  schools  are  the  i^roper  j^laces  for 
awakening  interest  in  behalf  of  forestry,  we  will  leave  out 
of  this  discussion,  but  our  Agricultural  Colleges  should 
consider  it  incumbent  upon  them  to  impart  not  only  ele- 
mentary but  full  scientific  information  upon  this  subject. 
By  pursuing  this  course,  they  would  follow  the  example  of 
similar  institutions  in  European  countries  a  century  ago. 
For  although  it  is  true  that  in  matters  pertaining  to  forest 
culture  much  depends  upon  experience,  and  that  the  first 
impulses  to  an  improved  management  of  forests  were 
given  by  practical  woodsmen,  systematic  forestry  did  not 
make  its  appearance  until  the  learned  men  at  the  univer- 
sities took  the  matter  in  hand,  and  applied  the  prin- 
ciples derived  from  mathematics,  natural  philosophy, 
political  economy  and  public  law  to  forestry.  After  hav- 
ing found  the  teachings  of  the  practical  foresters  to  be  in 
harmony  with  the  principles  of  science,  the  learned  men 
did  not  stop  work,  but  continued  their  efforts  to  improve 
the  method  of  managing  forests,  and  built  up  a  system  of 
managing  forests,  which,  although  it  cannot  be  declared 
yet  perfect,  has  contributed  much  to  the  amelioration 
of  the  economical  condition  of  the  European  nations. 

Prominent  teachers  in  forest  culture  are  still  at  variance 
in  regard  to  the  aims  and  ends  of  their  endeavors,  but 
all  concur  in  this  that  E-qierimental  Stations  are  nfices- 


GOVERXMEXT   ASSISTANCE   TO   FOEEST   CULTURE.       31 

sary  to  help  science  in  deiermining  the  correct  metliods 
of  managing  the  forests  advantagously  and  successfully. 
In  Europe,  colleges  of  forestry  and  agriculture  are  most- 
ly combined,  and  require  two  years  of  study  to  complete 
the  forestry  course  alone.  During  six  of  the  winter 
months  instruction  is  given  in  the  several  branches  of 
forest  science,  while  the  summer  months,  after  deducting- 
some  weeks  for  vacations,  are  employed  in  making  excur- 
sions to  places  Avhere  forest  operations  are  going  on,  or 
where  the  students  have  an  opportunity  to  practise  what 
they  have  learned  during  the  winter  time.  The  full  win- 
ter course  gives  instruction  in  : 

(1)  Cultivation  of  the  forest  trees  and  the  uses  to  which 
their  woods  may  be  applied,  with  the  mode  of  propagating 
them  upon  different  soils  ; 

(3)  Forest  exploitation  and  the  managment  of  forests 
according  to  the  various  systems  now  in  use  ; 

(3)  Forest  taxation  and  mensuration  ; 

(4)  Surveying,  draining,  and  embanking  ; 

(5)  The  methods  of  resisting  the  encroachments  ot 
shifting  sands  ; 

(G)  Care  and  chase  of  game  ; 

(7)  Laws  and  regulations  governing  the  forests. 

For  practising  these  studies,  excursions  are  arranged 
during  the  summer  months,  and  the  students  are  trained 
in  making  topographical  sketches,  surveyings,  openings 
of  roads  through  unbroken  forests;  and  in  every  kind  of 
forest  operation,  which  may  occur  either  on  plains  or 
mountains. 

The  examination,  which  the  candidates  for  appointment 
to  a  position  in  the  management  of  forests  have  to  under- 
go, is  very  strict,  and  tlie  result  of  this  system  has  proved 
eminently  beneficial  to  the  European  forestry  interests. 

But  of  much  greater  advantage  vfould  it  be  at  present 
for  our  State  to  establish  a  simple  forest  school  in  which 
young  men  could  receive  the  pioper  training  for  render- 


32  FOREST   PLANTING. 

ing  them  fit  for  the  position  of  foresters.  The  French 
government  has  clone  mucli  to  educate  good  foresters  by 
purchasing  the  well  known  forest-farm  ''Barres,"  which 
is  situated  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  level  near  the  great 
Orleans  forests.  This  farm  had  been  used  already  for 
fifty  years  as  a  private  Experimental  Station  for  forest 
trees.     The  objects  of  this  Station  were  : 

1.  Investigations  in  regard  to  the  most  profitable  use 
of  certain  soils  for  raising  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  wood 
thereupon.  With  this  department  there  were  connected 
experiments  for  acclimatizing  useful  foreign  forest  trees. 

2.  Eaising  at  the  least  possible  expense  tlie  greatest 
amount  of  good  seedlings,  combined  with  observations  in 
regard  to  the  yearly  increase  of  wood  in  the  various  forest 
trees. 

3.  Producing  and  closely  examining  the  seeds  used  in 
the  State  forests. 

The  French  government  bought  this  farm  in  1873.  not- 
withstanding her  great  financial  trouble  at  that  time,  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  there  a  Government  ''school 
of  forestj'i/."  This  was  done  without  interfering  in  any 
way  with  the  objects  to  which  the  farm  had  been  during 
half  a  century  so  beneficially  subservient.  There  was 
simply  added  to  this  establishment  the  "  school  of  for- 
estry," in  which  young  men  obtain  such  information  as  to 
enable  them,  after  the  completion  of  the  full  course,  to 
act  as  foresters.  The  course  lasts  through  two  years  and 
is  more  calculated  for  a  practical  instruction  than  a  high 
scientific  education.  To  impart  the  latter,  and  to  raise 
the  higher  officers  in  the  department  of  forestry,  the 
widely  known  Institution  at  Nancy  is  destined,  and  con- 
sidered amply  sufficient  for  all  France.  At  **Barres" 
instructions  in  certain  sciences  are  given  only  in  order  to 
accustom  men  brought  up  in  common  schools  to  concen- 
trate their  mental  power  more  upon  practical  subjects. 
Therefore,  only  during  four  winter  months  is  elementary 


GOYERN'MENT   ASSISTANCE  TO   FOREST   CULTURE.      33 

enliglifcment  given  to  them  in  mathematics,  geometry, 
surveying  and  leveling,  forest  botany,  zoology  and  ento- 
mology, while  they  are  thoroughly  instructed,  first,  in 
the  management  of  forests,  with  special  reference  to 
both  the  artificial  and  natural  restocking  of  forests ;  and 
second,  in  the  laws  and  regulations  by  which  the  ad- 
ministration of  forests  is  governed. 

The  institution  at  Barres  is  a  public  one.  A  certain 
number  of  young  men  between  the  age  of  nineteen  and 
twenty-four  years  are  received  every  year,  and  after  two 
years  of  study,  having  passed  the  examination,  get  an 
appointment  for  the  lowest  position  among  the  forest 
officers,  advancing  to  higher  positions  after  some  years' 
service  and  having  passed  further  examinations.  Tl]e 
pupils  are,  similar  to  our  West  Pointers,  educated  entire- 
ly at  public  expense,  receiving  even  a  small  salary  as 
pocket  money.  But  they  have  during  the  eleven  working 
months  of  the  year — one  being  devoted  to  rest  and  vaca- 
tion— to  perform  every  manual  labor  required  on  the 
farm  in  cultivating  the  soil,  raising  seeds  and  seedlings 
for  nearly  free  distribution  among  the  French  farmers, 
and  all  other  work  connected  with  the  Institution.  Be- 
sides this,  they  have  to  do  every  kind  of  labor  in  the 
adjoining  State  forests,  which  is  needed  to  preserve  the 
woods  and  retaining  them  in  a  first-rate  condition  ;  they, 
therefore,  have  to  personally  do  the  seeding,  planting, 
thinning  and  cutting  of  trees,  making  roads,  openings, 
ditches,  etc.,  in  order  to  learn  practically  every  work 
that  may  occur  in  the  course  of  systematic  treatment  of 
forests,  as  these  will  come  under  their  care  and  guidance. 

To  establish  in  or  near  the  Adirondacks  a  school  like 
this  one,  would  be  a  move  in  the  right  direction  for 
bringing  into  effect  the  well-meant  instructions  of  the 
cited  Section  18  of  the  Forestry  Act.  It  is  true  that  the 
Report  on  Forestry  published  at  Washington  in  1884 
recommends  very  strongly  the  establishment  of  schools 


34  FOREST    PLANTING. 

of  forestry  by  the  Federal  Government,  but  to  wait  until 
cjiis  sensible  advice  should  be  acted  upon,  would  show 
too  much  faith  in  the  activity  of  Congress  regarding 
affairs  other  than  those  merely  ijolitical.*  It  is  entirely 
a  matter  for  each  separate  State  in  the  Union  to  take  care 
of  its  forestry  interests  and  to  educate  its  own  officers, 
the  more  so  as  diversity  of  climate,  situation  and  other 
economic  reasons  v>'ill  make  the  proper  training  of  the 
foresters  in  the  various  States  in  certain  respects  a  di- 
versified one. 

As  for  the  cost  of  establishing  and  maintaining  such 
an  institution,  it  would  not  be  very  lai'ge,  especially  if 
adjoining  States  of  similar  climate  and  topograpliy  would 
unite,  and  contribute  in  proportion  to  its  support.  In 
fact,  the  labor  performed  by  the  young  men  of  the  Institu- 
tion would  make  it  nearly  self-supporting,  and  the  de- 
mand for  trained  foresters  in  the  United  States  would 
bring  more  students  to  the  Institution  than  could  be  ac- 
comodated. But  the  benefit  which  the  commonwealth 
would  derive  from  the  introduction  of  a  systematic  treat- 
ment of  the  State  forests  would  be  so  great  as  to  make  it 

*  In  the  First  annual  report  of  the  Ohio  State  Forestry  Bureau  for 
1885,  p.  20,  we  find  the  following  well  founded  complaint  on  this  point: 

"  When  a  few  years  ago  the  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Chamber  of  Commerce 
petitioned  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  to  establish  a  National 
School  of  Forestry  at  St.  Paul,  the  subject  of  forested  education,  and  more 
e8])ecial]y  its  necessity  in  this  country,  was  discussed  by  the  friends  of 
forestry. 

"  Five  years  have  elapsed  and  many  of  the  warm  advocates  of  the  pro- 
ject have  died.  The  subject  seems  to  have  been  stricken  from  the  pro- 
gramme of  subjects  at  forestry  conventions  ;  the  press  too  is  silent  on 
the  question,  and  yet  the  subject  has  lost  uoae  of  its  great  importance. 
No  one  who  has  studied  the  extent,  the  disti'ibution  and  condition  of  our 
forests,  and  who  has  inquired  into  the  prospet  of  a  renewal  of  our 
forests,  will  hesitate  to  assert  that  th2  need  of  instruction  in  forestry  is  an 
absolute  necessity. 

"  The  objection  that  there  is  no  need  of  trained  foresters  in  this  coun- 
try, which  was  urged  somj  years  ago,  vv'as  not  based  upon  a  knowledge 
of  the  extent  and  true  condition  of  our  forests,  but  rather  upon  a  blind- 
ness to  the  best  interest  of  our  land." 


GOVERNMENT   ASSISTANCE   TO    EOUEST   CULTURE.       35 

nearly  impossible  to  give  at  present  a  faint  idea  of  its 
value.  Besides  a  considerable  income  to  the  State,  the 
army  of  laborers  who  are  now  used  by  unscrupulous 
lumbermen  and  their  agents  in  illegally  cutting  timber 
on  the  State  lands,  and  who  are  becoming  every  year 
more  depraved  on  account  of  the  unpunished  continu- 
ance of  their  public  plundering,  could  then  be  made  to 
return  to  an  honest  and  well  paid  activity,  as  a  great 
many  hands  would  be  required  in  bringing  the  State 
forests  into  such  a  shape  as  to  produce  the  largest  possi- 
ble output.*  The  moral  standard  of  the  laborers  living 
in  or  near  the  State  forests  would  rise  again  to  the 
level  of  honesty,  and  the  "State  Troops  "  or  "The  Grena- 
diers "  f  would  give  up  their  dishonest  ways  and  become 

*  Although  the  work  to  be  performed  in  the  management  of  forests 
does  not  require  so  many  hands  as  in  the  management  of  farms,  there  is 
always  so  much  to  do  that  most  of  the  laborers,  who  have  settled  in  the 
sparsely  populated  wood  countries,  can  llnd  profitable  employment.  In 
Germany,  the  management  of  the  forests  is  so  conducted  that  a  tract  of 
from  40,000  to  80,003  acres  of  wood-lands — the  greater  number  of  acres 
being  alloted  to  the  mountainous  regions — is  given  to  the  care  of  an 
*^ Over-forester.''^  This  territory  is  divided  up  into  districts,  containing 
from  6,000  to  10,C0D  acres  each,  and  superintended  by  a  ^'forester." 
Each  of  these  districts  is  cut  up  into  smaller  tracts  of  from  3,000  to  4,0G0 
acres,  and  placed  in  charge  of  an  ^'■Under-forester,''''  who  superintends 
the  laborers  working  within  the  tract.  The  number  of  common  laborers 
employed  during  the  most  part  of  the  year  in  the  territory  of  an  Over- 
forester  is  from  200  to  300.  The  average  expense  amounts  to  about  one 
dollar  per  acre  a  year,  while  the  average  income  runs  to  between  two 
and  three  dollars  per  acre,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  from  one  to  two  dollars 
per  acre.  At  the  same  time  the  condition  of  the  woods  is  steadily  im- 
proved, this  insiiring  even  a  greater  profit  in  the  future.  As  most  of 
these  wood-lands  are  not  fit  for  agricultural  purposes,  it  cannot  be  de- 
nied that  from  this  management  a  handsome  revenue  is  derived,  besides 
furnishing  ample  sustenance  to  thousands  of  families. 

t  The  N.  Y.  St.  F.  R..  page  28,  describes  this  class  of  men  as  follows  : 
"  Hidden  within  the  remote  seclusion  of  the  wilderness,  this  latter  class 
(of  wood  thieves)  have  been  secure  from  obsci-vation,  and  there  has  been 
to  a  certain  extent  a  banding  together  for  defense  and  systematic 
plundering.  This  has  become  a  matter  of  notoriety,  so  much  so  that  in 
certain  localities  these  organized  bands  of  trespassers  go  by  the  n?  le  of 
"  State  Troops,"  while  in  others  they  are  known  as  "  The  Grenadiers." 


36  FOREST   PLANTING. 

employees  of  the  State.  They  would  lose  nothing  financi- 
ally by  this  change,  while  the  money  which  formerly  went 
into  the  pockets  of  the  unscrupulous  dealers  in  the  stolen 
State  property  would  flow  into  the  State  Treasury. 
The  price  for  logs  which  now,  owing  to  those  nefarious 
operations,  has  sunk  far  below  their  real  value,  would 
rise  to  such  a  degree  as  to  give  to  the  owners  of  the  wood- 
lands encouragement  for  introducing  a  systematic  man- 
agement of  their  forests,  from  which  in  the  future  an 
adequate  and  permanent  revenue  would  be  derived. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


FOREST    PLANTING  —  PREPARATORY    AND    PRECAU- 
TIONARY    MEASURES. 

In  order  to  obtain  all  the  advantages  of  real  forests, 
the  principal  requirements  are  correspondingly  extensive 
areas.  Forests  have  to  protect  not  only  themselves,  bu't 
also  their  surroundings  against  the  atmospheric  influences, 
and  if  a  small  forest  shall  perform  this  and  contribute  to 
the  welfare  of  the  country,  it  has  to  be  brought  into  a 
proper  connection  with  other  wooded  tracts.  A  forest 
will  not  have  been  built  up  satisfactorily,  unless  each 
tree  is  capable  to  protect  his  neighbor,  and  each  wood  lot 
is  enabled  to  afford  protection  from  sun,  rain,  wind  and 
cold  to  the  adjoining  one.  Only  after  this  has  been  ac- 
complished can  a  forest  reach  that  state  of  perfection 
which  is  necessary  to  make  it  profitable  and  of  economic 
value.  To  the  simple  farmer,  who  is  governed  only  by 
his  personal  interests,  a  tract  of  from  10  to  30  ac4-es  may 
suffice  for  raising  forestal  products,  especially  if  there  is 
a  protected  situation,  and  a  regular  rotation  in  cutting 
and  reproducing  the  forestal  vegetation  ;  but  this  is  a 
wooclcd  tract,  and  cannot  be  palled  Si  forest. 


FOREST   PLAJTTING — PREPARATOKY   MEASURES.        37 

Precaution  is  everywhere  advisable,  and  nowhere  it  is 
more  necessary  than  in  reforesting  denuded  wood-lands, 
because  there  not  only  come  up  considerations  of  the  most 
complicated  sort,  but  because  mistakes  committed  in  the 
execution  of  the  plans  often  involve  irreparable  damages. 
It  is  very  natural  that  those  who  undertake  reforesting 
vast  tracts  of  land,  desire  to  complete  their  labors  as 
quickly  as  possible,  in  order  to  be  able  to  soon  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  their  endeavors,  especially  if  unlimited  means 
are  at  their  disposal.  But  if  such  improvements  are  to 
produce  real  benefits,  large  expenses  should  be  avoided, 
leaving  to  the  effect  of  time — and  this  is  the  most  potent 
factor — the  accomplishment  of  the  most  permanent  bene- 
fits. Exorbitant  expenses  are  in  such  operations  never 
compensated  for  by  what  is  gained  in  the  shortening  of 
time,  whereas  going  ahead  gradually,  considerately  and 
practicall}^  will  always  bear  good  fruits. 

For  the  same  reason  the  area  to  be  restocked  during  a 
certain  season  should  not  be  too  large.  That  the  means 
of  performing  the  proposed  task  must  be  adequate,  is  a 
matter  of  course.  But  before  beginning  to  restock  those 
parts  of  a  large  forest  which  are  denuded  and  over  which 
parching  winds  sweep  unchecked,  the  old  wooded  tracts 
should  be  looked  after,  and  if  necessary,  extended  so  that 
they  are  brought  into  a  certain  connection  with  isolated 
places  of  a  large  denuded  area.  Thereupon,  when  the 
work  is  to  be  entered  upon,  it  should,  if  practicable,  be 
commenced  at  a  place  which  is  already  protected  by  the 
borders  of  adjoining  woods.  From  there  the  plantation 
is  pushed  forward  under  the  protection  of  the  groAving 
trees,  until  the  Avhole  tract  is  restocked. 

If  the  site  is  entirely  open,  and  blasting  winds  peremp- 
torily prevent  the  growing  of  trees,  there  have  to  be  pro- 
tective earth  walls  thrown  up,  on  top  of  which  less  valu- 
able, but  more  hardy  trees,  such  as  poplars,  cotton-wood 
and  birches  are  planted.     Under  cover  of  this  protection 


38  FOREST    PLANTING. 

the  jjlanting  may  be  begun,  and  if  properly  done,  will 
prove  successful. 

In  restocking  large  areas,  a  good  deal  of  mental  work 
must  be  i^erformed  before  the  undertaking  can  be  com- 
menced. Elaborate  plans  have  to  be  made  in  which  the 
lots,  with  proper  divisions  and  sub-divisions,  must  be 
determined  upon,  roads  and  Avays  laid  out,  drainage 
attended  to,  in  short,  every  thing  must  be  considered 
which  will  assist  in  securing  the  vigorous  growth  of  tbe 
trees.  In  making  these  plans,  the  limits  placed  by  the 
necessity  of  returning  the  invested  capital  with  compound 
interest,  must  never  be  lost  sight  of.  Nor  can  we  make 
use  of  any  artificial  fertilizer,  for  we  have  to  be  contented 
with  the  resources  furnished  by  the  kindness  of  nature. 
Therefore,  first  of  all,  we  have  to  look  for  the  dormant 
forces  of  nature,  and  to  consider  whether,  and  with  what 
means,  we  may  be  able  to  make  them  subservient  to  our 
purpose.  The  agriculturist  is  able  to  correct  his  mistakes 
every  year,  but  the  forest  culturist's  mistakes  accompany 
him  to  his  grave,  and  often  cannot  be  corrected,  except 
by  generations  that  come  after  him. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


THE    METHODS    OF    CULTIVATING    DENUDED  WOOD- 
LANDS. 

There  are  several  modes  of  cultivating  wood-lands. 
To  determine  upon  one  or  the  other  of  them  by  a  general 
rule  or  by  theoretical  principles  is  absolutely  impossible, 
because  everything  therein  depends  upon  the  condition 
of  the   soil,   climate  and  situation  of  the   tract  to  be 


CULTIVATIN^G    DENUJ.'ED    Yv'OOD-LANDS.  39 

Avooded.  The  only  general  rule  which  intelligent  forest- 
ers follow  in  such  cases  is:  first,  to  make  a  calculation 
in  regard  to  the  profitableness  of  the  operation,  and  tiieu 
to  do  the  work  as  thoroughly  as  the  means  on  hand  will 
permit. 

Before  entering  upon  active  operations,  there  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  everything  influencing  the 
growth  and  thrift  of  forestal  vegetation.  In  this  resj)ect 
we  have  first  to  examine  the  condition  of  the  soil,  this 
being  a  source  from  which  the  young  trees  receive  their 
principal  nourishment.  As  the  soil,  especially  on  the 
plains,  changes  very  much  in  regard  to  both  its  mechan- 
ical character  and  chemical  condition  of  fertilit}^,  a  close 
investigation  of  the  components  of  the  soil  is  required,  to 
find  out  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  plant-food  con- 
tained therein. 

Trees  strive  to  penetrate  with  their  roots  as  deep  as 
possible  into  the  soil.  The  more  room  there  is  for  the 
extension  of  the  roots,  the  more  they  will  be  developed 
and  able  to  promote  a  quicker  and  stronger  growth  of 
the  trees,  these  receiving  a  great  deal  of  their  food — and 
a  very  essential  one  at  that — through  the  roots  from  the 
contents  of  the  soil.  Poor  soils  as  well  as  exhausted  ones 
offer  great  difficulties  for  raising  trees,  and,  therefore, 
preparatory  operations  have  to  be  undertaken,  in  order 
to  enable  them  to  produce  a  good  forest  vegetation. 
The  obstacles  to  a  vigorous  growth  of  forest  trees  are 
manifold.  Sometimes  the  soil,  by  the  continuous  and 
unimpeded  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays  and  parching  winds, 
has  become  thoroughly  dried  up  and  impoverished,  and 
in  addition  to  this  it  is  often  covered  either  on  its  top  or 
in  its  intermediate  layers  with  impenetrable  strata  of 
carbonaceous  or  feruginous  substances,  which  prevent  the 
growth  of  plants  upon  them.  Sometimes  the  fertile  soil 
has  been  either  washed  away  or  made  too  compact  and 
firm,  or  swamj^y,  or  boggy,  by  rain  or  snow.     In  all  such 


40  FOREST   PLAKTIXG. 

cases  the  soil  sliould  be  brought,  by  proper  2:»lowing  and 
subsoiliiig,  mto  such  a  condition  that  plants  will  grow 
there.  The  soil  having  been  deeply  broken  and  mixed 
up  with  the  macerated  hard  pan  brings  the  hidden  treas- 
ures of  the  deeper  soil,  consisting  of  easily  soluble  salts, 
carbonates  or  oxides,  in  contact  with  the  fertilizing  power 
of  light  and  air,  thus  restoring  the  plant-food  that  had 
been  washed  down  into  the  all-absorbing  subsoil.  Be- 
sides this  the  deep  and  thorough  pulverizing  of  the 
impoverished  soil  increases  the  depth  of  the  ground  to 
which  gases  and  humidity  from  the  open  air  may  pene- 
trate, helping  the  growth  of  plants  by  increasing  the 
warmth  of  the  soil,  and  thus  giving  a  more  regular 
moisture  to  the  roots  of  j^lants,  both  by  supplying  it  in 
times  of  drouth  and  by  carrying  it  away  when  in  excess. 
Deep  plowing  of  the  ground  is  unavoidably  necessary, 
if  it  is  intended  to  plant  forest  trees  with  long  tap-roots 
on  heavy  compact  soil,  as  these  trees  will  never  have  a 
vigorous  growth,  unless  the  soil  is  rendered  fine  to  a  con- 
siderable depth. 

On  heaths  deep  cultivation  destroys  the  growth  of 
lichens  and  breaks  up  the  hard  pans,  both  of  which  are 
heavy  drawbacks  to  forest  planting  on  the  infertile 
heaths.  The  carbonaceous  soil  is  entirely  insoluble  and 
impenetrable.  It  can  only  be  rendered  fertile  by  break- 
ing and  mixing  it  with  the  other  ingredients. 

The  same  favorable  effect  is  accomplished  with  peat  or 
muck  soils.  Stirring  them  up  thoroughly  to  the  depth 
of  about  12  to  14  inches  renders  them  able  to  produce 
valuable  forest  trees. 

Forest  vegetation  cannot  succeed  but  on  soil  which 
contains  sand,  clay  and  lime,  the  two  first  named  being 
the  most  potent  factors  of  vegetable  growth.  If  the  soil 
does  not  contain  at  least  some  parts  of  each  of  the  three 
named  minerals,  complete  infertility  will  be  the  result. 
The   more   equally  these  three   ingredients   are  mixed 


CULTIVATION    OF   SOILS.  41 

together  in  the  soil,  the  more  fertile  it  will  be.  Nature 
has  distributed  these  three  minerals  pretty  equally  all 
over  the  earth.  But  on  many  places  they  are  not  mixed 
together  and,  therefore,  we  have  to  apply  deep  culture  in 
order  to  produce  in  the  seed-beds  the  mixture  wanted 
for  a  successful  growth  of  forest  trees.  The  only  ex- 
ceptions are  the  places  where  high  winds  have  gath- 
ered and  piled  up  the  loose  sands.  These  never  must 
be  touched  by  any  means  of  culture,  except  by  those 
winch  will  be  explained  further  below,  and  which  con- 
fine themselves  to  means  which  never  disturb  the 
soil.  The  same  is  true  in  all  cases  where  a  layer  of 
quick-sand  is  underlying  a  thinny  surface  clay  soil. 
Here  the  cultivation  should  be  confined  to  a  slight  stir- 
ring up  of  the  fertile  soil,  leaving  the  infertile  subsoil 
entirely  untouched,  otherwise  the  latter  would  be 
brought  to  the  top  and  completely  bury  the  fertile  soil. 

On  tracts  where  the  full  deep  cultivation  of  the  soil 
is  advisable  and  practical,  certainly  it  is  the  better  plan 
to  undertake  the  operation  to  its  widest  extent.  But  as 
there  exists  on  heaths  great  danger  from  shifting  sands, 
and  on  mountainous  declivities  from  washing  away  the 
soil  by  rain  storms  and  snow  drifts,  it  is  often  expedient 
to  undertake  those  improvements  in  instalments,  sub- 
jecting only  parts  of  the  whole  tract  to  the  appropriate 
treatment. 


CHAPTER  vnr. 

CULTIVATION    OF   SOILS. 


The  implements  for  cultivating  the  soil  with  regard  to 
forest  planting  are  the  plow,  spade  and  hoe.  Manual  labor 
has  great  advantages  on  account  of  its  thoroughness  ;  but 
the  high  price  for  labor  forces  us  to  mostly  use  plows,  ex- 
cept in  places  where  the    condition  of  the  soil  (boggy, 


42  FOREST    PL  ANTING. 

stony  or  steep)  prevents  the  application  of  this  useful  im- 
plement. As  a  rule  the  double  plow  is  used  to  break  up 
larger  tracts  of  denuded  wood-lands,  because  it  is  only 
"with  such  a  plow  that  the  heavy  swath  formed  by  a 
thick  cover  of  lichens  can  be  thoroughly  peeled  off,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  main  plow  enters  deep  into  the  soil, 
turning  it  over  in  furrows.  Heaths  which  have  remained 
for  a  long  time  uncultivated,  are  liable  to  formations 
of  hard  pan  within  the  extent  of  the  fertile  soil.  Such  lay- 
ers cannot  be  broken  except  by  steam  plows.  These 
should  also  be  emplo}'ed  wdiere  the  cultivation  of  extended 
tracts  justify  a  larger  expenditure.  It  is  a  "well-known 
fact  tiiat  steam  i)lows  perform  this  work  not  only  cheaper 
than  horse-power,  but  also  more  thoroughly  and  benefici- 
ally for  the  grov/th  of  trees.  Owing  to  the  greater 
celerity  of  the  movements  of  the  plow,  and  its  long  sci'ew- 
shaped  boards,  the  particles  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  are 
infinitely  pulverized  and  mixed  together.  A  common 
plow  never  could  do  the  work  so  nicely. 

After  the  soil  thus  having  been  prepared,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  it  a  rest  of  a  year  or  at  least  of  an  entire 
winter,  in  order  that  the  air,  moisture,  warmth  and 
frost  may  act  upon  the  infertile  subsoil,  newly  brought  to 
the  surface,  and  impart  upon  it  the  ingredients  which 
are  missing  in  the  subsoil,  and  yet  necessary  for  a 
healthy  growth  of  forest  vegetation.  At  all  events 
plantations  cannot  be  begun  on  places  treated  in  the 
aforesaid  manner,  unless  the  old  turned  under  surface- 
soil  has  completed  its  fermentation  and  settling.  After 
being  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  air,  the  turned  up 
subsoil  will  have  lost  most  of  its  humic  acid,  and  the  in- 
soluble mineralic  parts  of  the  same  will  have  been  partly 
made  soluble,  and  for  the  roots  of  trees  available;  while  the 
gases  of  the  air,  which  have  entered  the  soil,  directly 
furnish  to  the  plants  vegetable  food.  Only  after  the  soil 
has  rested  so  long  as  to  receive  the  said  beneficial  iuflu- 


DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION.  43 

euces  of  its   rest,    planting   may  be  successfully  com- 
menced. 

The  greatest  difficulties  in  restocking  denuded  wood- 
lands are  encountered  on  the  bare,  steep  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  because  every  heavy  rain  carries  away  from 
there  a  part,  if  not  every  particle  of  the  soil.  Help 
against  this  trouble  is  found  in  seeding  the  places  with 
quick  growing,  and,  as  to  plant-food,  unpretentious 
grasses,  or  jjlanting  such  trees  as  will  by  their  nets  of 
roots  bind  the  soil.  On  this  mode  of  culture  we  shall 
treat  in  Part  III. 


CU AFTER  IX. 
DRAINAGE  AND  IRRIGATION. 

The  supply  and  the  preservation  of  water  in  the 
soil  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  growth  of  trees. 
Wherever  drainage  is  required,  there  should  at  the  same 
time  be  considered  the  question  of  preserving  the  humi- 
dity in  the  ground.  By  lowering  the  water  table — i.  e., 
the  top  of  the  ground  water,  we  always  must  prevent  the 
exsiccation  of  the  soil,  if  necessary,  by  the  erection  of 
some  apparatus  for  stopping  the  flow  of  water  at  any  de- 
sired time. 

A  proper  quantity  of  humidity  in  the  soil  always  exer- 
cises a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  growth  of  trees,  the 
roots  of  v/hich  only  being  able  to  assimilate  the  plant  food 
contained  in  the  soil,  after  this  has  been  made  liquid  by  the 
water.  But  stagnant  water  is  detrimental  to  the  growth 
of  every  vegetation  :  it  kills  the  activity  of  the  roots.  In 
order  to  retain  the  proper  degree  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  of  the  plains,  there  should  not  only  be  had  regard 
to  the  humidity  received  from  the  atmosphere,  but 
also  to  the  water  contained  in  the  subsoil,  the  ground 
water.     The  less  rain  is  falling  in  the  country,  and  the 


44  FOREST   PLANTING. 

more  the  soil  is  liable  to  quickly  evaporate  its  moisture, 
the  more  evident  is  the  beneficial  result  of  an  abundant 
stock  of  water  in  the  subsoil  to  the  vegetation.  In  the 
not  drained  lowlands  along  the  rivers,  the  water  table  is 
on  the  level  Avith  the  river.  But  the  moisture  of  the 
soil,  owing  to  the  capillary  attraction,  rises  above  this 
station  so  that  the  less  is  done  in  the  way  of  drainage, 
the  higher  penetrates  the  humidity  in  those  lands.  Tliis 
holds  principally  true  in  regard  to  swampy  grounds  or 
moorlands,  which,  owing  to  their  sponge-like  structure, 
are  able  to  receive  enormous  quantities  of  water,  and  to 
retain  it. 

The  injurious  effects  of  wet  soils  to  the  growth  of 
trees  can  easily  be  observed.  Such  soils  are  cold  and  do 
not  retain  warmth  ;  whereas  forest  vegetation  requires 
more  than  any  other  plant  a  warm  soil.  Moreover,  a 
wet  soil  disolves  the  vegetable  food  contained  therein 
rapidly,  and  carries  it  down  into  the  subsoil,  where  it  is 
inaccessible  to  the  roots  of  young  trees.  Thus  the  upper 
soil  is  sometimes  entirely  washed  out,  losing  a  great  deal 
of  its  power  to  sustain  plant  growth.  An  excess  of 
moisture  in  the  upper  soil  prevents  access  of  air,  and 
consequently  there  does  not  properly  go  on  the  decom- 
position of  organic  matter,  nor  the  disinteqratio7i  of  the 
minerals  contained  in  the  ground,  both  chemical  actions 
being  necessary  for  the  sustenance  of  plant  life.  When 
organic  matter  in  the  soil  decomposes  while  in  contact 
with  an  excess  of  moisture,  there  n'ill  be  produced  acetic 
acid  and  other  organic  acids,  which  soon  make  the  ground 
sour.  Then  the  formation  of  impenetrable  layers  of 
protoxide  of  iron  will  commence,  and  that  means  death 
to  every  vegetation.  To  the  spongy,  swampy  soil,  exces- 
sive quantities  of  water  arc  especially  deleterious,  these 
swelling  uj)  the  j^ores  in  the  ground  so  greatly  as  to  dis- 
turb the  development  of  the  tree  roots,  and  causing, 
during  the  spring,  late  frosts. 


DRAINAGE   AND    IRRIGATION.  45 

A  properly  made  drain  leaves  in  moorlands  enough 
moisture  in  their  smaller  pores  for  furnishing  to  the 
roots  of  young  trees  the  necessary  plant-food,  helping  at 
the  same  time  to  impact  the  roots  in  the  soil  ;  while  the 
air  in  the  emptied  large  pores  continues  circulating,  and 
neutralizes  the  acids  produced  by  the  moisture  when  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil. 

It  is,  therefore,  obvious  that  in  regulating  the  aqueous 
conditions  of  a  tract  of  land,  both  the  efflux  and  the  in- 
flux of  the  water  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  avoid  the  in- 
jurious effects  of  being  too  wet,  and  yet  to  retain  in  the 
ground  the  moisture  necessary  to  plant  vegetation. 

In  regulating  the  conditions  of  the  water  with  swampy, 
boggy  and  peaty  soils,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
bring  fresh  soil  over  the  surface.  This  is  done  by  dig- 
ging parallel  ditches  of  the  proper  distance,  depth  and 
width,  and  throwing  the  dug-out  soil  at  both  sides  upon 
the  thus  formed  beds.  This  culture,  called  border  or 
bed  culture  {Rabatten  Kultur),  serves  not  only  to  im- 
prove the  chemical  but  also  the  mechanical  condition  of 
the  soil,  and  therefore  has  the  same  result  as  deep 
plowing  has  upon  common  soil. 

The  boggy  or  peaty  soils  especially  require  chemical 
improvement,  as  they  mostly  need  the  important  sub- 
stances for  the  growth  of  trees — the  mineral  components. 
For  this  reason  they  are  unable  to  make  their  richness  of 
nitrogen  available  to  the  trees,  these  being  unable  to  appro- 
priate the  nitrogen,  except  after  it  has  been  converted, 
with  the  help  of  some  minerals,  into  nitric  acid.  Be- 
sides, the  spongy  condition  of  this  kind  of  soil  does  not 
furnish  to  the  roots  of  trees  the  rest  and  stability  neces- 
sary for  the  development  of  the  root  system,  because  the 
soil,  in  receiving  humidity,  swells  up,  and  in  drying  up, 
contracts;  thus  always  disturbing  the  position  of  the 
roots  and  preventing  their  development. 

The  improvement  of  peaty  tracts  can  best  be  effected 


16  FOREST    PLAXTING. 

by  mixing  sandy  loam  with  them,  especially  when  the 
latter  contains  marl,  because  such  a  mixture  furnishes 
rich  plant-food  for  the  tree  roots.  But  even  coarse  sand 
added  to  peaty  soil  would  be  a  great  improvement,  because 
sand  contains  always  a  large  part  of  silica  combined  with 
kali,  which,  either  by  the  influence  of  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  air,  or  of  the  humic  acid  in  the  soil,  are  disin- 
tegrated and  converted  into  carbonate  of  lime,  this  being 
soluble  in  water,  and  in  this  shape  available  to  the  roots. 

Moreover,  this  treatment  acts  beneficially  upon  the  me- 
chanical condition  of  the  loose  soil,  which  by  the  weight 
of  the  coarse  sand  is  compressed,  and  yet  remains  porous 
enough  to  let  the  air  joercolate  in  the  ground.  Fine  sand 
should  not  be  used,  because  it  never  contains  kali ;  in 
coarse  sand  kali  always  is  found,  and  for  this  reason  it 
deserves  the  preference. 

Eaising  the  soil  by  throwing  earth  over  the  surface  of  the 
borders  (beds)  is  especially  helpful  in  the  regions  of  large 
rivers,  where  otherwise  drainage  is  impossible. 

The  extent  of  the  drainage,  as  well  as  the  increase  of 
the  elevation  of  the  borders,  depends  upon  how  much  or- 
dinary moisture  shall  be  retained  in  the  eoil,  and  especially 
how  high  the  water  table  in  the  subsoil  shall  rise.  Upon 
common  soil  trees  grow  best  when  the  ground  water  does 
not  rise  higher  than  3  or  4  feet  below  the  surface,  because 
under  such  circumstances  the  superfluous  water  can  run 
off,  and  at  the  same  time  the  water  evaporated  on  the  sur- 
face soil  can  be  easily  replaced  from  the  ground  water 
through  the  capillary  attraction.  But  the  spongy  peat 
soils,  bogs,  ferns,  etc.,  attract,  owing  to  their  increased 
capillary  functions,  water  too  easily,  and,  therefore,  must 
have  a  lower  water-line  than  common  soil. 

We  shall  consider  this  question  more  fully,  when  fur- 
ther treating  upon  the  drainage  of  swamps,  bogs  and 
peaty  fens. 


THE   SELECTION    OF  TKEliS.  47 

CHAPTER    X. 

THE  SELECTION   OF  TREES. 

If  the  question  arises  :  What  kind  of  trees  should  be 
selected  for  the  reforesting  of  denuded  wood-lands,  the 
choice  must  necessarily  confine  itself  to  those  trees  which 
are  indigenous  to  the  given  locality,  and  which  afford 
ample  protection  to  the  soil  against  sun  and  wind.  Wood- 
lands proper  are  commonly  too  poor,  or  have  such  a  site 
as  to  render  them  unadapted  for  agricultural  purposes  ; 
and  even  forest  trees,  al*-hough  generally  not  being  pre- 
tentious as  regards  soi',  cannot  prosper  when  very  young, 
unless  the  surface  soil  contains  some  available  plant-food. 
Therefore,  the  poorer  the  soil,  and  the  more  unfavorable 
the  location,  the  more  difficulties  arise  in  answering  the 
question  :  What  kind  of  trees  shall  we  j)lant  in  a  certain 
locality  ?  Then  we  can  but  look  at  such  as  will  be  con- 
tent with  poor  soil,  and  these  are  the  coniferous  trees, 
especially  the  pines,  as  for  instance  :  The  Yellow  Pine, 
Pitch  Pine,  Red  or  Norway  Pine  {Pinus  Austriaca), 
and  Pinus  sylvestris,  usually  called  the  Scotch  Pine. 
They  not  only  lay  the  least  claims  on  the  soil  as  for 
plant-food,  but  with  their  leaves,  broken  twigs  and  de- 
cayed roots,  give  back  what  they  have  received  from  the 
soil,  adding  much  to  what  they  have  elaborated  from  the 
atmosphere  ;  thus  they  increase  every  year  the  quactity  of 
the  fertile  surface-soil  or  humus,  and  perform  this 
function  nearly  as  good  as  the  broad-leaved  trees  do.  Be- 
sides, they  are  easier  to  raise  than  other  trees,  and  as  for 
the  profits  derived  from  their  wood,  these  are  at  least 
just  as  large,  as  in  raising  other  kinds  of  trees.  There- 
fore, it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  conifers  are  the  most 
desirable  trees  for  the  recuperation  of  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  in  denuded  wood-lands. 


48  FOREST   PLANTING. 

Of  all  the  conifers  there  is  no  species  which  can  com- 
pare in  frugality  quantity  of  wood  production  and  returns 
with  the  Scotch  Pine  {pirius  sylvestris).  This  tree,  al- 
though a  native  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  is  now  largely 
grown  here.  It  will  succeed  even  upon  the  poorest  soil, 
altering,  during  its  growing  period,  the  condition  of  the 
soil  in  such  a  manner  that  later  on  more  valuable  trees 
may  me  raised  there.  This  species  should  always  be 
resorted  to  in  places  where  no  other  tree  will  grow, 
and  although  the  benefits  offered  by  it  will  not  last 
longer  than  during  its  first  growing  period, — as  it  is 
losing  its  soil-shading  capability  after  a  growth  of  from  15 
to  20  years — we  cannot  spare  it,  but  have  to  give  the 
plantation  either  a  short  rotation,  or  we  must  intermix 
other  suitable  trees  right  at  the  planting  time,  or  later, 
as  soon  as  openings  in  the  plantation  appear.  In  moun- 
tainous regions  the  Larch  or  Tamarack  serves  nearly  all 
the  purposes  for  which  the  Pine  is  used  on  the  plains. 

Excepting  the  general  principles  laid  down  in  the  pre- 
ceding suggestions,  there  is  no  absolute  rule  for  selecting 
the  proper  trees  to  be  planted  in  a  given  locality.  The 
best  way  to  avoid  mistakes  is  to  study,  not  only  the  na- 
ture of  the  Tarious  species  of  the  forest  trees  by  them- 
selves, and  in  aggregate  life — but  also  the  hints  afforded 
by  the  lay  of  the  land  ;  and  when  we  have  mastered  these 
hints,  we  should  follow  them  by  selecting  such  trees  as 
will  find  on  the  given  place  everything  that  is  required 
for  their  full  development.  At  the  same  time  we 
must  not  overlook  the  purpose  for  tvhich  trees  are  planted 
— a  point  which  is  to  be  considered  even  before  the  ques- 
tion arises:  *' What  to  plant?"  For  instance  :  When  we 
advise  the  intermixture  of  spruces,  oaks,  and  even 
beeches  with  pines,  there  could  possibly  some  one  find 
fault  with  us  because  the  trees  named  will  never  reach  a 
full  development  on  poor  ground,  but  become,  after  the 
first  growing  period,  stunted  and  suppressed  by  the  pines. 


THE   SELEnTIOISr    OF   TREES.  49 

However,  in  giving  this  advice,  our  intention  is  accom- 
plished as  soon  as  those  trees  obtain  a  sufficient  hold 
upon  the  soil  to  protect  it  against  sun  and  air  during 
that  time  in  which  the  pine  is  unable  to  do  this.  The 
increased  cost  of  the  plantation,  caused  by  the  temporary 
growth  of  these  trees,  which  will  be  removed  before  they 
have  reached  maturity,  cannot  be  considered  as  a  draw- 
back, because  the  condition  of  the  pines,  these  being  the 
real  stock  of  the  plantation,  will  be  so  much  improved 
as  to  fully  counterbalance  the  additional  expenses. 

A  more  effective  agent  upon  the  amelioration  of  the 
soil  can  be  made  by  spruces  and  firs.  But  these  trees  re- 
quire more  food  for  their  sustenance  than  a  poor  soil  is 
able  to  offer  them,  and  they,  therefore,  cannot  obtain  a 
permanent  footing  upon  it.  Besides,  the  spruce,  not- 
withstanding its  desirability  in  an  intermixture,  does  not 
preserve  the  freshness,  that  is  :  the  vigorous  activity  of  the 
soil,  and,  for  this  reason,  should  never  be  grown  alone  as 
a  stock  of  trees.  This  fact  might  also  account  for  the 
decaying  of  many  blocks  of  the  black  spruce  in  the 
Adirondacks  since  1878,  of  which  the  First  Report  of  tho 
N.  Y.  State  Forest  Commission,  on  pages  50,  62  and  76 
complains. 

The  common  beech  renders  very  valuable  services  in  the 
recuperation  of  the  lost  fertility  to  the  soil,  for  it  furnishes 
great  masses  of  rich  leaves,  forming  a  vigorous  humus-soil 
which  is  continually  increased,  and  preserved  in  this 
state  by  the  shading  qualities  of  the  tree.  But  as 
the  beech  requires  for  its  luxurious  growth  a  soil  rich  in 
soluble  minerals,  and  as  such  soil  will  be  claimed  by  tho 
agriculturist,  there  will  seldom  be  a  chance  for  the  beech 
to  exercise  its  beneficial  function,  unless  it  be  on  mountain- 
ous slopes,  where  agriculture  cannot  be  conducted. 

Generally  speaking,  the  densely  foliaged  trees,  viz  : 
Beech,  Hornbeam,  Spruce,  Fir,  Walnut,  Chestnut  are, 


50  FOREST    PLANTING. 

in  regard  to  the  amelioration  of  the  soil,  to  be  preferred 
to  those  Avith  thin  foliage,  as  Oak,  Maple,  Ash,  Elm, 
Birch,  Alder,  Aspen,  Acacie,  Pine,  Larch,  because  the 
former  furnish  a  continual  cover  to  the  ground,  and  create 
an  always  increased  producing  capability  of  the  soil, 
while  the  latter,  with  their  increased  growth,  draw  for 
their  subsistence  more  upon  the  soil,  which,  on  account 
of  the  thin  foliage  of  these  trees,  is  continually  decreasing 
in  fertility,  owing  to  its  exposure  to  sun  and  air. 

The  greatest  difficulties  beset  the  forest-planter  in  the 
selection  of  trees  to  be  planted,  when  denuded  w^ood- 
lands,  and  poor  ones  at  that,  in  mountainous  regions  are 
to  be  reforested.  Here  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact 
that,  before  the  final  stock  of  trees  can  be  planted,  often 
a  cover  of  the  ground  has  to  be  created  by  other  easily 
and  rapidly  growing  forest-trees.  Under  these,  the  young 
plants  of  the  future  stock  of  trees  may  be  safely  devel- 
oped, until  they  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  An  il- 
lustration of  this  is  the  Beech,  Hornbeam,  Fir,  and 
other  shade-enduring  trees.  These  are,  when  young, 
GO  sensitive  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  and 
v/ind,  that  the  seedlings,  even  upon  the  richest  soil,  will 
not  thrive,  unless  shaded  by  densely  foliaged  trees. 

The  determination  upon  the  proper  trees  to  be  planted 
on  a  given  locality,  should  always  be  preceded  by  a  care- 
ful examination  in  regard  to  soil,  site,  and  surroundings 
of  the  place.  As  woody  plants,  except  when  very  young, 
obtain  the  most  part  of  their  nourishment  through  the 
gases  in  the  air,  and  not  from  the  soil,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  chemical  conditions  of  the  soil  do  not  play  such 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  trees,  as  is  the 
case  with  grasses  and  other  agricultural  plants.  But  the 
mechanical  or  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  growth  of  forest  trees,  and, 
therefore,  the  investigation  into  this  point  should  never 


THE   SELECTION   OF  TEEES.  51 

be  neglected.  If  such  an  examination  is  scrupiilonsly 
conducted,  it  should  lead  with  safety  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  selected  species  of  trees  will  find  there  every- 
thing which  will  secure  its  thrift.  In  doubtful  cases  those 
trees  which  lay  the  lesser  claim  upon  the  soil  are  to 
be  preferred.  The  safest  way  is  always  to  follow  the 
hints  of  nature,  and  plant  such  trees  as  are  thriving  best 
in  or  near  the  region  in  which  the  planting  shall  be 
done. 

This  understood,  we  have  still,  as  mixed  planting  now- 
a-days — and  with  the  best  reasons — is  commonly  preferred 
to  the  planting  of  pure  stock,  to  determine  upon  what 
varieties  will  fraternize  with  each  other  when  planted  in 
a  mixture.  So,  for  instance,  Elm  and  Maple  do  not 
agree  with  the  Oak,  "Walnut  and  Hickory  as  neighbors, 
but  will  lean  away,  become  crooked,  and  die  out  before 
reaching  their  maturity ;  whereas  Ashes  thrive  v,^ell 
when  planted  with  the  last  named  trees.  With  such  a 
mixture,  the  ground  would  be  fully  and  profitably 
utilized,  as  the  Ashes  draw  their  food  from  the  surface, 
and  the  other  (tap-rooted)  trees  from  the  subsoil.  Pines, 
although  also  provided  with  tap-roots,  succeed  very  well 
in  a  mixture  with  Oaks,  Hickories,  Walnuts  and  Chest- 
nuts ;  mostly,  however,  they  serve  as  nurses  to  the  last 
named  trees,  and  are  cut  before  reaching  their  full 
maturity,  after  which  the  sheltered  trees  obtain  their 
full  development.  The  Larch  is  often  planted  on  suit- 
able grounds  as  pure  stock;  but  a  slight  intermixture  of 
the  common  Pine  or  Scotch  Pine  has  proven  very  advan- 
tageous. 

It  is  very  important  for  the  forest-planter  to  know  this 
behavior  of  the  trees  among  themselves,  and  much  re- 
mains to  be  done  with  us,  to  correctly  classify  the  forest 
trees  in  this  direction.  Easier  is  another  for  mixed  plant- 
ing, also  important  classification  of  trees,  viz  :  such  as  in 


52  FOREST    PLANTING. 

their  early  age  have  a  dense  foliage,  that,  with  increased 
age,  is  getting  thinner,  and  such  as  preserve  their  dense 
foliage.  To  the  latter  belong  Firs,  Beeches,  Spruces,  and 
the  Catalpa;  to  the  former,  Oaks,  Birches,  Pines, 
Larches,  Hichories. 

Valuable  hints  on  mixed  forest  planting  are  given  m 
the  Report  of  the  Division  of  Forestry,  published  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  1887,  on 
page  189.  There  we  read  :  "After  having  determined 
what  kinds  are  desirable  and  suitable  to  be  planted  in  a 
given  locality,  the  possibility  of  mixing  two  or  more 
kinds  depends  : 

(a)  On  their  relative  capacity  for  preserving  or  in- 
creasing favorable  soil  conditions  ; 

{b)  On  tlieir  relative  dependence  for  development  on 
light  or  shade  ;  and 

(c)    On  their  relative  rate  of  height  growth." 

As  general  rules  for  mixing  are  thereupon  summed  up 
the  following  : 

1. — The  dominant  species,  i.  e.,  the  one  that  occupies 
the  greater  part  of  the  ground,  must  be  one  that  im- 
proves the  soil  conditions,  generally  a  shady  kind. 

2. — Shade-enduring  (i.  e.,  densely  foliaged)  kinds  may 
be  mixed  together  when  tiie  slower-growing  kinds  can  be 
protected  or  guarded  against  the  overshading  of  the  more 
rapid  grower,  either  by  planting  the  slower  grower  first 
or  in  greater  numbers,  or  in  larger  specimens,  or  else  by 
cutting  back  the  quicker-growing  ones. 

3. — Shade-enduring  kinds  may  be  mixed  with  light- 
needing  kinds,  when  the  latter  are  either  quicker  growing 
or  are  planted  in  advance  of  the  former,  or  in  larger 
specimens. 

4. — Thin  foliaged  kinds  should  not  be  planted  in  mix- 
tures by  themselves,  except  on  very  favorable  soils,  as  in 
river  bottoms,  marshy  soil,  etc.,  where  no  exhausting  of 


THE    SELECTION    OF   TREES.  53 

soil-humidity  need  be  feared,  or  else  on  very  meager,  dry 
soils,  where  most  shady  trees  would  refuse  to  grow,  and 
one  must  make  a  virtue  of  necessity. 

5. — The  mixing  in  of  the  light -foliaged  trees  in  single  in- 
dividuals is  preferable  to  placing  them  together  in 
groups,  unless  special  soil  conditions  make  the  occupa- 
tion of  certain  spots  by  one  kind,  which  may  be  better 
adapted  to  them,  more  desirable,  as  for  instance,  the  Ash 
in  a  wet  ground  (slough).  Wheu  a  slower-growing,  light- 
needing  kind  is  to  be  grown  side  by  side  with  the  quicker- 
growing  shady  one — as  for  instance,  Oak  and  Catalpa — 
a  group  of  Oaks  will  have  more  chance  to  withstand  the 
shade  of  the  densely  foliaged  Catalpa  than  the  single  in- 
dividual." 

The  late  Dr.  John  A.  Warder,  who  was  the  first  man 
in  America  to  make  an  effort  at  developing  a  system  of 
forestry  adapted  to  this  country,  expressed  his  hopes,  tha,t 
we  would  in  the  course  of  time  come  to  an  expedient  pro- 
cess for  the  care  of  our  forests,  dependent  upon  the  correct 
answers  of  the  question  :  Which  trees  should  be  planted 
in  mixed  groups,  and  which  trees  are  obnoxious  to  one 
another  ?  He  observed  that  it  is  necessary  to  know  re- 
specting each  of  this  species: 

l.--Tlie  term  of  rotation  of  trees. 

2. — The  height  attained  by  the  trees  at  maturity. 

3. — The  rapidity  of  their  growth. 

4. — What  trees  should  never  be  grouped  together. 

5. — What  trees  are  exclusive,  and  should  be  planted  in 
masses  by  themselves. 

6. — Which  require  the  protecting  care  of  nurses. 

From  all  this,  appears  the  urgent  necessity  of  estab- 
lishing experimental  stations  in  those  parts  of  our 
country  which  are  in  need  of  the  helping  hand  of  the 
forester. 

As  far  as  my  own  experience  in  this  State  goes,  I  can 


64  FOnEST   PLANTING. 

recomTnend  the  following  mixtni-e  of  the  principal 
forest  trees  : 

1. — Oaks  with  Ashes,  Hickories  and  Chestnuts. 

2. — Oaks  with  Spruces  and  Walnuts. 

3. — Oaks  with  Pines  and  Spruces. 

4. — Oaks  with  Beeches  and  Spruces. 

6. — Larch  with  Pines  and  Oaks. 

6, — Black  Walnut  with  Maples  and  Beeches, 

7. — Beeches  with  Maples,  Elms  and  Ash. 

8. — Black  Ash  with  Alders  and  Beeches  in  swampy 
grounds. 

9. — White  Pine  with  Beeches  and  common  Pines. 

10. — Scotch  Pine  with  Spruce  and  Fir. 

11. — Locust,  Ashes  and  Catalpa. 

In  our  natural  forests  we  find  Birches  scattered  all  over 
among  groves  of  the  various  kinds  of  lorest  trees.  How- 
ever, we  would  not  advise  to  mix  this  tree  with  other  val- 
uable ones,  as  the  Birch,  owing  to  the  whipping  property 
of  its  branches,  injures,  more  or  less,  the  young  twigs  and 
buds  of  the  neighboring  trees.  Only  to  very  poor  soil 
and  where  no  other  trees  but  the  Pine  (on  dry  ground) 
and  the  Alder  (on  swampy  ground)  grow,  we  should  assign 
the  Birch. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE   VARIOUS   SYSTEMS   OF  FOREST  MANAGEMENT. 

Wooded  countries  are  unable  to  support  a  large  popu- 
lation, as  there  is  not  much  of  the  area  left  for  raising 
the  required  grain,  fruits,  vegetables,  etc.  Therefore,  in- 
creased i^opulation  regularly  diminishes  the  country's 
wooded  area,  increasing  at  the  same  time,  the  demands 
made  upon  the  forest  vegetation.     Besides  this,  there  are 


VARIOUS   SYSTEMS   OF   FOREETT   MANAGEMENT.        55 

many  other  causes  which  often  produce  a  sudden  and 
enormous  destruction  of  the  woods,  causing  great  desti- 
tution among  nations,  and  heavy  drawbacks  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  general  weal  and  culture  of  a  people.  The  re- 
cuperative power  of  the  forests  being  but  slow,  the  human 
mind  has  long  been  bent  upon  inventing  artificial  means 
for  the  purpose  of  always  having  on  hand  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  wood  to  satisfy  the  diversified  demands  of  the 
public.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  systematic  ro- 
tation in  cutting  down  the  woods.  The  forests  are  di- 
vided up  into  as  many  if  not  equal  but  possibly  equiv- 
alent parts,*  as  years  are  required  to  bring  the  trees  to 
their  maximum  grotvth,  and  then  every  year  one  lot  is 
entirely  cleared  of  trees  and  thereupon  replanted.  The 
next  year  the  same  treatment  is  applied  to  the  second 
lot,  the  third  year  to  the  third  one,  and  so  on  until  the 
whole  tract  is  gone  over.  Then  the  trees  on  the  first  lot 
will  have  reached  their  full  growth  again,  and  be  ready 
for  the  axe. 

This  mode  was  certainly  a  progressive  one,  and  it  is 
still  in  practical  use  in  many  of  the  European  countries. 
But  it  often  caused  great  inconvenience,  when  the  lot  to  be 
cut  contained  trees  which  were  not  so  much  wanted  as 
other  trees,  that  grew  upon  lots  not  yet  reached  by  the 
rotation.  And  then  it  was  ascertained  that  the  division 
of  the  forest  alone  in  as  many  lots  as  possible,  did  not 
secure  an  equally  sustained  production  through  the  suc- 
cessive cycles  of  the  rotation,  the  second  crop  never  being 

*  The  reason  why  the  woods  are  divided  up  in  this  way  is  to  obtain, 
at  every  cuttina:  period,  an  equal  average  product  of  the  forest  vege- 
tation. As  the  various  portions  of  a  large  forest,  on  account  of  difference 
in  soil,  exposure,  etc.,  often  vary  very  much  in  their  productiveness,  parts 
equal  in  extent  are  not  always  equ;il  in  production.  To  obtain  such 
equivalence,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the  variations  in 
Eoil,  in  exposure,  and  in  adaptation  to  the  grovrth  of  the  kind  of  trees 
which  happen  to  be  upon  it. 


66  FOREST   PLANTIXG. 


to  the  primitive,  nor  the  third  to  the  second,  and 
so  forth. 

And  then  there  arose  a  diversity  of  opinions  relative  to 
the  ends  and  objects  to  be  reached  by  rotations  in  forest 
culture,  and  this  was  the  more  important,  as  upon  the 
decision  of  this  controvei'sy  would  depend  the  determin- 
ation of  the  proper  (that  is,  the  most  economical)  time 
of  the  growing-period  of  forest  trees.  In  this  regard 
there  prevail  four  different  opinions,  which  are  based 
upon  the  following  principles  : 

1. — The  princij)le  of  the  uninterruptly  continued  pro- 
duction of  the  same  kind  of  trees  in  a  certain  wooded 
area. — By  putting  into  practice  this  principal,  there  will 
at  the  sa)ne  place  always  be  the  scone  pure  stock  of  trees, 
and  as  for  their  cutting  time,  those  periods  will  be  ob- 
served which  will  secure  the  continuance  of  the  original 
stock. 

This  system,  called  the  ilocJc  system,  and  worked  in 
rotation,  was  not  long  since  the  most  popular  in  Ger- 
many, because  it  satisfied  the  national  predilection  for 
extended  forests  of  large  Beeches,  Oaks  and  Evergreens. 
The  growing  periods  for  the  single  lots  of  the  rotation 
were  of  long  duration,  viz.:  from  120  years  to  140,  and 
even  200  years. 

But  the  increased  demands  made  by  the  industries  for 
other  kinds  of  wood,  and  the  decreasing  demand  for  the 
high-priced  Beeches  as  fuel,  on  account  of  the  inex- 
haustible supply  of  cheap  mineral  coal,  shook  the  foun- 
dations of  a  system  which  had  no  regard  for  the  wants 
either  of  the  present  or  of  the  future.  And  then  it  was 
shown  that  the  ''sustained"  production  of  the  wooded 
area  and  its  fertility  could  even  be  better  retained  by 
growing  such  kinds  of  wood  as  are  now  more  in  use — 
Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  Alder,  etc. — and  that  a  growing  period 
of  from  CO  to  80  years  allotted  to  said  modern  trees,  was 


VARIOUS    SYSTEMS   OF   FOREST   MANAGEMEiST.  57 

financially  niucli  more  profitable  than  the  former  large 
ones. 

2. — The  principle  of  the  maximum  growth  of  the 
trees. — In  accepting  this  principle,  the  time  of  cutting 
the  trees  has  arrived  as  soon  as  the  yearly  average  in- 
crease of  the  wood  in  the  trees  has  reached  its  highest 
point. 

The  average  maximum  growth  of  a  tree  is  found  by 
dividing  the  entire  mass  of  the  tree  by  the  number  of 
years  of  its  age.  The  current  or  yearly  increase  of  the 
mass  shows  the  relation  of  the  quantity  of  wood  grown 
during  the  year  in  question,  to  the  existing  whole  mass 
of  the  tree. 

3. — The  principle  of  producing  the  maximum  of  value. 
— According  to  this  principle,  the  lot  is  cut  as  soon  as 
the  trees  have  reached  the  age  at  which  they  bring  the 
highest  prices  in  the  gross  amount.  The  average 
maximum  of  value  is  found  in  the  same  way  as  the 
maximum  of  growth. 

But  these  two  latter  systems  suffer  the  same  fault  of 
having  their  cutting  periods  too  far  apart,  thus  pre- 
venting the  capital  invested  from  being  made  profitable; 
for  trees  do  not  continually  increase  in  their  growth  at 
the  same  rate  in  which  the  capital  invested  accrues  with 
compound  interest.  They  grow  only  during  the  first 
sixty  or  seventy  years  in  a  proportion  adequate  to 
straighten  their  debit  account,  and  leave  then  a  hand- 
some profit.  Later  this  proportion  changes  very  much 
to  the  detriment  of  the  capital.  For  instance  :  A  forest 
of  Conifers  furnishes  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  years 
not  much  more  wood  than  double  the  quantity  which  it 
v/ould  have  yielded  at  the  age  of  sixty  years,  while  the 
sum  representing  the  value  of  the  wood  at  the  forest's 
age  of  sixty  years,  would,  with  compound  interest,  in- 
crease during  the  next  forty  years  to  at  least /owr  times 
its  amount. 


58  FOREST  PLAXTING. 

4. — The  principle  of  the  largest  pecuniary  returns,  or 
of  the  financially  most  profitable  cutting  periods. — By 
this  principle  the  trees  are  cut  at  the  time  when  the 
largest  soil  rent  of  the  i'rivested  capital  will  be  earned, 
taking  into  account  compound  interest,  every  expense, 
rent  of  lands,  etc. 

Professor  Pressler,  at  Tharand,  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony,  more  than  twenty-five  years  ago  claimed  that 
this  principle  was  the  only  safe  basis  upon  which  the 
management  of  forests  should  be  conducted,  and  now  all 
the  leading  experts  in  forest-matters  agree  vvith  him, 
because  experience  has  confirmed  the  correctness  of  a 
system  which  answers  all  demands  made  upon  forests, 
both  for  preservation  and  profit. 

A  great  many  changes  in  the  time-honored  manage- 
ment of  the  European  forests  have  been  caused  by  the 
strict  enforcement  of  this  doctrine,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  following  : 

{a)  The  development  of  trees,  till  they  have  formed 
the  maximum  quantity  of  wood,  formerly  necessitated  with 
Beeches,  Oaks  and  other  sorts  of  hard  wood  a  rotation  of 
about  24.0  years,  and  with  Evergreens  a  rotation  of  120 
years.  This  has  been  entirely  changed,  and  now  ro- 
tations of  scarcely  half  that  time  are  in  use,  viz  :  for 
Evergreens,  from  50  to  60  years,  and  for  Oaks,  Beeches, 
etc.,  from  70  to  80.  This  change  was  brouglit  about  by 
the  consideration  that  the  capital  invested  in  forest  ex- 
ploitations increased,  during  the  second  part  of  the 
long  rotations  by  the  accumulation  of  accrued  interest  so 
rapidly,  that  in  counting  up  the  items  of  the  debit  ac- 
count and  credit  account,  the  business  proved  a  losing 
one.  For  instance  :  the  product  of  a  one-hundred-and- 
twenty-years-old  Oak  forest  nets  the  sum  of  X.  "Were 
the  forest  permitted  to  continue  its  growth  during 
another  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  the  amount  of 
wood  produced  during  this  second  period  would  not  be 


VAKIOUS   SYSTEMS   OF   FOEEST   MANAGEMENT.  59 

larger  than  that  grown  during  the  first  one  ;  conse- 
quently a  sale  of  the  two  hundred  and  forty  years' 
product  would  not  bring  more  than  two  times  the  sum 
of  X,  while  the  capital,  X,  if  deposited  at  3>^  per  cent. 
Avith  a  bank,  would  have  increased  with  compound  in- 
terest during  the  130  years  of  the  second  growing  period, 
to  twenty-two  times  X.  As  Oaks  and  other  hard-wood  trees 
at  the  age  of  from  90  to  100  years,  and  Evergreens  at  from 
60  to  70  years,  furnish  every  kind  of  useful  material,  the 
high  forests,  that  is,  where  the  trees  are  allowed  to 
reach  their  maximum  growth,  are  going  to  be  superseded 
by  the  so-called  middle  forests,  that  is,  where  the  treea 
only  reach  their  full  development. 

(J)  Evergreens  have  a  wider  range  of  usefulness  than 
the  deciduous,  or  so  called  hard- wood  trees,  because  they 
allow  us,  in  the  calculation  of  the  profits  of  forests,  to  bo 
more  circumspective  in  regard  to  the  presumable  wants 
of  the  future.  This  is  the  more  important,  as  the  wood 
production  requires  long  periods,  and,  therefore,  every 
good  management  of  forests  should  always  take  into 
account  the  possibilities  of  the  future.  This  is  the 
reason  why  at  present,  in  Europe,  in  replanting  forests. 
Evergreens  are  often  given  the  preference,  even  upon 
soil  on  which  fastidious  deciduous  trees  would  thrive. 

(c)  The  supremacy  of  Beeches  and  Oaks  is  abolished, 
and  in  consideration  of  the  increased,  and  in  the  future 
very  likely  not  decreased,  want  of  other  deciduous  trees, 
as  Ash,  Alder,  Maple,  Birch,  etc.,  these  last  named  kinds 
of  trees,  together  with  the  Evergreens,  are  given  at  least 
the  same  consideration  as  the  old  royal  Beech  and  Oak 
tree. 

{(l)  To  raise  a  })ure  stock  of  trees  of  the  same  kind  and 
age,  is  not  now  considered  as  profitable  as  to  raise  mixed 
stock  of  different  ages,  because  by  the  former  the  soil  is 
too  much  exhausted.  One  kind  of  wood  takes  always 
the  same  ingredients  from  the  soil,   but    a   variety  of 


60  FOREST   PLANTING. 

trees,  although  using  an  equal  quantity  of  plant-food, 
abstract  different  elements  from  the  soil  and  leave  it  in  a 
much  better  condition  in  general  than  if  only  one  kind 
of  plant- food  were  exhaustingly  consumed.  Besides,  the 
mixed  stock  of  trees  offer  more  opportunities  to  satisfy 
the  growing  demand  for  the  various  kinds  of  wood. 
Therefore,  tlie  scientiiic  forest  culturists  of  tne  present 
time  have  directed  their  efforts  toward 

(e)  Introducing  the  so-called  plenter-management.  By 
this  the  j^rimitive  forest,  in  which  the  various  trees  are 
mixed  up,  both  in  regard  to  kind  and  age,  is  divided 
into  a  certain  number  of  large  tracts,  according  to  the 
time  required  for  the  reproduction  of  the  full-grown 
trees.  But  instead  of  coiifining  the  exploitation  at  a  time 
to  one  of  these  tracts,  the  supply  of  wood  required  is  ob- 
tained, during  a  certain  joeriod  of  years,  from  the  felling 
of  the  trees  in  one  tract,  and  from  the  several  thinnings 
and  other  necessary  cuttings  in  others.  For  instance  : 
it  is  intended  to  treat,  by  this  management,  a  wooded 
area,  say  of  50,000  acres,  with  different  kinds  of  soil  and 
trees  of  various  ages,  the  full  development  .of  which 
would  be  reached  by  an  average  growth  of  80  \ears. 
Then  the  forest  is  divided  up  into  eight  equal  or  at  least 
equivalent  parts,  which  are  separated  either  naturally  by 
roads,  creeks,  mountains,  etc.,  or  artificially  by  opening 
joaths  or  roads  that  serve  at  the  same  time  as  a  protection 
against  fire,  wind-breaka,  snow-drifts,  and  as  outlets  for 
forest  vegetation.  During  a  period  of  ten  years  there 
are  taken  from  one  part*  at  different  places,  whatever 
timber,  fuel  or  lumber  may  be  wanted,  thinning  out  at 

*  Those  parts,  in  Germany  called  "  Reviere  "  (Districts),  are  subdivided 
into  lots  of  from  200  to  300  acres,  Avhich  are  also  separated  by  paths 
from  10  to  14  feet  wide,  called  "Schueiseu."  They  have,  like  the 
wider  roads  of  the  Districts,  proven  very  useful  in  suppressiiif? 
forest  fires  and  protecting  the  trees  against  wind-storms  and  snow 
di-ifts,  besides  their  principal  use  in  serving  as  an  outlet  for  the  products 
of  the  forest. 


VARIOUS   SYSTEMS   OF   FOREST   MANAGEMENT.  61 

the  pame  time  in  other  tracts  those  trees  or  bushes 
which  encroach  upon  other  trees,  and  felling  such  trees  as 
have  passed  their  maturity  and  are  going  to  decay.  The 
same  operation  is  done  during  the  next  decade  in  the  next 
tract,  and  so  forth,  till  all  the  tracts  are  fully  exploited, 
when  the  cycle  of  successive  fellings  will  be  recommenced 
again.  These  cuttings  can,  if  desired,  always  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  gradually  to  arrive  at  groups  of  trees  of  the 
same  age  and  description,  and  finally  at  blocks  with  high 
forest  trees  worked  in  rotation.  At  all  events,  the  fel- 
lings are  so  conducted  as  to  secure  simultaneously  and 
without  prejudice  to  one  or   another  part  of  the  forest: 

(1)  A  continually  sustained  supply  of  a  desired  variety 
of  forest  products. 

(2)  A  sure  reproduction  of  the  forest,  either  by  self- 
sown  seed,  by  shoots  and  suckers  from  stumps  and  roots 
of  felled  trees,  or  by  seeding  and  planting. 

(3)  A  progressive  and  improved  condition  of  the 
forest,  in  place  of  former  deterioration. 

In  these  three  points  there  are  concentrated  the  ob- 
jects which  scientific  managers  of  forests  in  Germany 
and  France  have  in  view,  and  which  are  being  accom- 
plished, not  there  alone,  but  also  in  other  European 
countries  to  which  students  of  forest  science  have  brought 
the  knowledge  of  advanced  management  of  forests. 
This  revolution  in  the  management  of  forests  was 
brought  forth  by  the  calculations  made  in  finding  the 
exact  amount  of  the  net  proceeds  obtained  from  the 
usual  forest  exploitation. 

The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  proceeds  of  a  capital  in- 
vested in  forest  culture  is  as  follows  :  The  value  of 
the  lands  and  all  expenses,  from  the  time  of  begin- 
ning the  plantation,  or  cultivation  till  the  time  of 
cutting,  are  figured  up,  and  compound  interest  from 
the  time  of  incurring  the  expenses  till  the  cutting  time 
is  added.    This  sum  forms  the  debit  account.    The  credit 


62  FOREST  PLANTING. 

account  is  made  up  by  figuring  all  the  revenue  derivable 
from  the  forest  during  the  growing  period,  and  carrying 
it  forward  with  compound  interest  to  the  cutting  time. 
The  value  of  the  wood  at  the  cutting  time  is  found  by 
the  help  of  tables  based  upon  certain  methods  of  de- 
termining accretion  in  yearly  mass,  and  large  ex- 
perience for  every  variety  of  wood  in  any  kind  of  soil 
and  location,  and  this  amount,  added  to  the  sum  of 
the  revenues  with  compound  interest,  forms  the  credit 
account.  If  from  this  amount  is  deducted  the  total 
of  the  debit  account,  the  difference  is  the  amount  of 
the  net  revenue.  For  instance  :  the  80  years'  growing 
period  for  a  certain  plantation  shows  that  the  invested 
capital  of  110  for  an  acre  would  yield,  at  the  end 
of  this  period,  a  net  revenue  of  about  $154;  while 
the  50  years'  period  by  the  same  calculation  netted  $110  ; 
the  GO  years',  $125;  70  years',  $130;  90  years',  $140;  100 
yearp,',  $130;  110  years',  $130— the  80  years'  period 
would  be  considered  the  most  profitable,  netting  over 
four  per  cent,  interest,  and  the  others  less. 

The  term  "Forest  Gardening'^  is  sometimes  under- 
stood to  signify  a  special  mode  of  systematic  forest  cul- 
ture, quite  distinct  from  the  others  now  in  use.  But  this 
phrase,  correctly  applied,  means  simply  a  plenter  man- 
agement made  serviceable  in  certain  localities,  and  under 
certain  conditions.  While  the  forester  has  generally  to 
deal  with  the  aggregate  of  trees  in  the  woods,  his  at- 
tention is  not  infrequently  claimed  by  single  trees,  or  by- 
groups  or  rows  of  trees,  which  serve  to  protect  the  soil 
from  the  influence  of  sun  and  air,  and  the  neighborhood 
from  the  effects  of  sudden  atmospheric  changes.  In  such 
cases  extraordinary  measures  must  be  taken  to  prevent, 
at  all  events,  openings  in  the  woods  ;  the  single  trees 
have  to  be  always  watched,  and  those,  which  from  over- 
matureness  or  other  causes  are  incapable  of  affording  ef- 
fects which  would  justify  their  preservation,   must  be 


VARIOUS   SYSTEMS    OF   FOREST   MANAGEMENT.  63 

carefully  removed  and  replaced  by  others  of  a  suitable 
character. 

This  sort  of  forest  culture  is  resorted  to  upon  mountain 
summits,  to  retain  the  atmospheric  moisture  in  the 
ground,  and  upon  steep  declivities,  to  prevent  rains  from 
washing  down  the  soil  and  causing  land-slides.  It  is  also 
applied  upon  level  plains,  where  areas  of  loose  sand,  if 
not  retained  by  forest  trees,  may  spread  in  sand-drifts 
and  bury  adjacent  cultivated  fields.  Agricultural  lands 
which  are  exposed  to  strong  winds  and  frost,  can  be  pro- 
tected against  these  influences  by  surrounding  them  with 
the  proper  trees,  disposed  in  screens  or  belts.  This 
treatment  is  especially  useful  in  small  farms  where  a  sus- 
tained growth  upon  the  wood-plot  is  highly  desirable, 
and  for  this  reason  it  will  be  of  practical  benefit  to  us. 

If  from  the  foregoing  suggestions  it  should  appear  de- 
sirable that  an  application  of  the  methods  above  alluded 
to  should  be  made  to  our  wild  or  natural  forests,  it  is 
evident  that  the  so-called  plenter  management  would  be 
the  best  adapted  to  them.  We  are  still  in  the  fortunate 
position  that  Ave  need  not  look  out  either  for  the  natural 
products  of  the  State  forests,  or  for  revenues  derived 
from  them ;  but  we  should  make  use  of  this  oj^portunity 
and  employ  better  and  more  efficient  means  to  preserve  our 
forests,  than  those  which  are  calculated  to  protect  them 
against  fire  and  spoliation  only.  We  should  put  an  end 
to  the  present  chaotic  condition  within  the  forests,  and 
introduce  a  methodical  exploitation  of  the  woods,  combined 
with  a  proper  care  for  the  undergrowth,  so  that  the  trees 
cultivated  shall  be  such  as  are  most  adapted  to  the  dif- 
ferent localities  of  our  widely  dispersed  state  forest,  and 
may  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  people  for  fuel,  timber 
and  lumber.  Under  expert  management  we  can  reach 
these  objects,  and  at  least  make  our  forests  self-sup- 
porting, provided  that  at  regular  intervals  every  har- 
vested forest  product  is  sold  at  public  auction,  and  not 


64  FOREST   PLANTING. 

— as  is  now  the  practice — left  to  rot  and    create  dan- 
gerous fire-traps,  or  breeding  places  for  noxious  insects. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
RAISING  FOREST  TREES  BY  NATURAL  REPRODUCTION. 

SHOOTS. 

There  are  a  great  many  trees — to  be  found  mostly 
among  the  deciduous  varieties — which  have  the  power  of 
forming  buds  in  the  stem  or  exposed  parts  of  the  roots, 
in  addition  to  the  usual  buds  formed  upon  joints  and  the 
base  of  leaves. 

The  formation  of  these  adventitious  buds  seems  to  be 
caused  by  the  endeavor  of  the  tree  to  ajiply  to  the  pro- 
duction of  new  shoots  the  plant- food  taken  up  by  the  un- 
hurt parts  of  the  root.  These  new  shoots  grow  up  into 
trees  and  are  called  coppice  or  copse- wood.  Thus  in  a 
very  simple  way  the  restoring  of  forests  has  been  made 
practicable  by  saving  and  properly  treating  the  stumps 
and  roots  of  felled  trees.  The  more  a  certain  kind  of 
tree  is  inclined  to  coppicing,  the  better  is  this  mode  of 
propagation  adapted  to  it,  and  it  is  a  method  which  in 
many  cases  will  be  found  to  be  the  cheapest  and  most 
successful.  In  employing  it,  the  cutting  of  the  trees 
should  always,  if  possible,  be  exactly  even,  and  in  an  up- 
wardly sloping  direction,  care  being  taken  not  to  seji- 
arate  the  bark  from  the  trunk,  because  their  conjuncture 
at  the  line  of  incision  is  the  place  at  which  the  new 
shoots  will  appear.  Experience  shows  that  trees  which 
can  be  propagated  by  sprouts,  lose  with  their  advancing 
age  the  capability  of  sending  up  vigorous  shoots.     ^Yo 


FOREST   TREES   BY    NATURAL   KEPRODUCTIOX.  65 

should,  therefore,  select  the  stumps  of  vigorous  and 
younger  trees  for  natural  regeneration,  and  if  these 
cannot  be  found,  it  is  better  to  plant  seedlings  for  cop- 
pice than  to  force  old  stumps  to  spend  their  last  energy 
in  sending  out  some  weak  shoots. 

The  condition  of  the  soil,  with  respect  to  its  being 
either  dry,  or  wet  and  swampy,  has  an  important  influence 
upon  the  result  of  the  operation.  In  the  former  case 
the  trees  should  be  cut  cloae  to  the  ground,  so  as  to  force 
the  roots  to  produce  shocts  underground.  The  trees 
growing  up  from  such  shoots  are  more  capable  of  stand- 
ing drought  than  shoots  produced  on  higher  stumps. 
On  swampy  soil,  especially  if  subjected  to  overflows,  the 
stumps  should  be  left  high  enough  to  jirevent  the  water 
from  overflowing  them,  because  if  cut  too  low,  the 
stumps  will  sometimes  be  covered  with  water,  and  will 
perish  for  want  of  air.  As  that  part  of  the  old  root,  which 
produced  the  new  tree,  detaches  from  the  old  root  system, 
forming  a  separate  root  with  its  own  rootlets,  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  continued  reproduction,  provided  the  dead 
leaves,  broken  twigs,  branches,  etc.,  of  the  trees  are  left 
on  the  ground  to  decay,  for  they  are  the  manure  espec- 
ially adapted  to  trees,  and  when  taken  away — as  is  often 
the  case  in  husbandry,  to  serve  as  litter  or  feed — the 
woods,  being  deprived  of  a  natural  element  of  their  thrift, 
exhaust  themselves  and  dwindle  away,  while  the  soil  of 
those  forests,  where  the  leaves  are  never  removed,  con- 
tinually grows  richer  and  yields  better  products. 

If  denuded  and  neglected  wood-lands  are  to  be  re- 
stocked cheaply  and  quickly,  the  first  step  to  be  taken  is 
to  cut,  in  the  manner  described,  every  stunted  tree  or 
bush,  and  to  smooth  off  the  stumps  where  the  surface  is 
rugged.  The  best  time  for  cutting  trees,  in  order  to 
raise  coppice-wood,  is  during  the  dormant  season,  that 
is,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  winter,  or  after  the  cold- 


66  FOREST    PLANTING. 

est  weather  is  over.     Trees  should  never  be  cut  for  this 
purpose  later  than  March. 

LAYERS. 

Sometimes  stumps  develop  shoots  which  may  be  bent 
down  into  the  soil  to  a  certain  depth,  after  an  incision 
has  been  made  on  the  under  side  of  the  shoot,  in  the 
bend,  so  as  to  split  it,  if  possible,  a  little  below  the  bud, 
and  to  form  a  tongue.  A  hooked  peg  is  usually  employed 
to  hold  the  layer  in  place.  The  tops  should  be  elevated 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  an  upward  direction, 
and  tied  up  to  a  pole.  In  time,  the  buried  parts  of  these 
shoots  (or  branches)  take  root,  and  finally  become  indi- 
vidual trees.  The  ground  around  tlie  layers  should  be 
kept  quite  clear  of  weeds,  and  the  layers  should  be  freely 
watered  in  dry  weather.  When  sufficiently  rooted  the 
layers  should  be  carefully  separated  from  the  stool 
(parent  tree)  with  all  the  rootlets  attached  to  them,  and 
planted  in  nursery  lines,  or  in  those  situations  where  they 
are  permanently  to  remain.  Layers  may  be  made  at  any 
time  in  the  growing  season  ;  but  they  will  root  sooner  if 
made  when  the  trees  are  growing  rapidly  (spring)  than  at 
any  other  time.  The  process  of  producing  layers,  as  we 
shall  see  further  on,  is  of  great  importance  in  replanting 
denuded  side-hills  where  rain  may  wash  away  the  soil. 
The  roots  of  the  old  stumps  and  the  new  roots  of  the 
layers  bind  the  soil,  and  thus  prevent  its  washing  out. 


While  "shoots"  are  produced  in  deciduous  trees  by 
adventitious  buds,  the  layers  and  cuttings  of  some  of  the 
deciduous  trees  have  the  power  of  forming  roots.  A 
number  of  trees  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  as  for  in- 
stance :  the  W^illows,    Poplars,    some   of  the  Alders  and 


FOEEST   TREES   BY    NATURAL   REPRODUCTIOX.  67 

Maples,  and  the  Button  wood  or  Sycamore.  It  is  advis- 
able to  make  these  cuttings  in  the  fall ;  they  should  be 
about  twelve  inches  long,  and  made  in  wood  of  the  cur- 
rent season's  growth,  and  heeled,  during  the  winter,  in  a 
moist  place,  protected  against  frost.  This  serves  to 
form  on  the  base  of  the  cuttings  a  callus  from  which  the 
roots  push  out,  as  soon  as  they  are  planted  in  the  spring. 
They  should  be  set  deep  enough  to  nearly  cover  their 
greatest  part,  and  treated  in  the  same  way  as  trans- 
planted seedlings,  except  that  they  should  be  set  slanting 
— not  straight.  For  when  the  ground  settles  it  packs  to 
the  cuttings,  and  prevents  them  from  becoming  loose,  a 
result,  and  a  very  injurious  one  at  that,  which  often  pre- 
vents the  prosperous  growth  of  straight-planted  ciittings. 

To  promote  the  production  of  roots  of  cuttings  which 
are  planted  in  dry  soil,  they  should  during  the  summer 
months  be  mulched,  as  only  a  moist  soil  is  able  to  secure 
the  quick  and  strong  development  of  roots. 

Cuttings  do  not  well  stand  transplanting.  It  is,  there- 
fore, advisable  to  set  them  where  they  are  to  remain. 

Coniferous  trees  in  general  cannot  be  reproduced  in 
the  natural  ways  just  named,  but  require  the  artificial 
means  of  propagation  by  seeding  or  planting.  However, 
there  is  a  natural  way  in  which  denuded  wood-tracts, 
which  had  been  covered  with  conifers,  may  be  replanted, 
provided  there  are  left  at  proper  distances  standard  or 
parent  trees,  from  the  scattered  seeds  of  wliich  young 
plants  can  spring  up.  This  treatment  can  be  recom- 
mended as  efficient  with  very  poor  soil  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  grasses  easily  getting  hold  of  the  ground.  But 
if  it  is  to  be  expected  that  such  will  be  the  case,  a  light 
tillage  with  a  wooden  harrow  should  be  given  to  the  soil 
in  the  late  spring.  By  this  operation  the  mosses  and 
grasses  spreading  over  the  ground  are  destroyed,  and  the 
seeds  which  fell  from  the  parent  trees  will  be  sufficiently 
covered  in  order  to  secure  to  the  tract  a  natural  regenera- 


G8  FOREST   PLANTING. 

tion.  The  standard  trees,  whicli  serve  as  parent  trees, 
are  commonly  called  with  ns  "staddles."  One  tree  is 
sufficient  for  each  intervening  space  of  from  60  to  80 
feet ;  for  an  acre  of  woodland  from  10  to  12  seed  trees 
would,  therefore,  be  required. 

In  Europe  the  use  of  these  natural  modes  of  reproduc- 
ing forest  trees  is  exceptional,  and  is  confined  to  partic- 
ular localities  and  conditions.  True,  where  a  denuded 
wood  tract  contains  a  sufficient  number  of  trees  which 
will  copse,  and  which  have  not  yet  reached  an  age  when 
they  can  no  longer  send  out  vigorous  shoots,  coppice  cul- 
ture will  invariably  be  resorted  to.  The  skillful  application 
of  the  planter  management  in  the  administration  of  the 
forests  has  been  able,  in  time,  to  convert  mixed  coppice 
woods  (or  low  forests)  into  middle  forests,  and  even  into 
high  forests,  with  a  pure  stock  of  trees  and  the  block 
system.  But,  usually,  forest  trees  are  now  raised  arti- 
ficially, either  by  seeding  or  jilanting,  which  methods  wo 
will,  in  Chapters  XIV  and  XV,  consider  in  connection 
with  the  principal  forest  trees. 


CHAI>TER  XIII. 


THE    COLLECTION  AND    TREATMENT  OF   SEEDS    FOR 
FOREST  TREES. 

The  easiest  way  of  procuring  seeds  for  forest  trees  is 
to  buy  them  from  the  seed  dealer.  But  as  even  the  most 
conscientious  dealer  will  seldom  warrant  the  full  vitality 
of  his  stock,  it  is  a  much  better  plan  to  gather  them 
when  ripe,  and,  unless  used  at  once,  to  properly  preserve 
them  till  seeding  time.  At  all  events  the  seeds  should, 
before  using  them,  be  subjected  to  a  vigorous  test  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  percentage  of  seeds  which  will 


COLLFX'TIOX   ANJ)   TREATMENT   OF   SEEDS.  69 

germinate.  For  this  purpose  the  forest  planter  should 
apply  one  of  the  many  well-known  modes  of  testing  the 
germinating  power  of  the  seeds,  and  act  accordingly. 
Seeds  which  show  in  the  test  that  70  per  cent,  of  them 
sprout,  are  called  good,  whereas  those  which  contain  only 
from  50  to  60  per  cent,  kernels  of  germinating  power,  are 
called  fair.  Seeds  which  show  vitality  only  in  less  than 
50  per  cent,  should  be  rejected,  if  offered  by  the  trade. 

(a)    SEEDS  OF  DECIDUOUS  TREES. 

The  seeds  of  deciduous  trees  are  easily  collected. 
Most  of  them  ripen  in  autumn,  but  a  few,  as  Elms,  Pop- 
lars, and  kindred  trees,  some  species  of  the  Maple  (soft 
Maple)  produce  mature  seeds  early  in  the  summer,  wliile 
seeds  of  Birch,  Mulberry,  and  like  kinds,  ripen  later  in 
the  summer. 

The  seeds  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  they  fall  from  the 
tree,  because  they  do  not  keep  well  over  till  next  spring. 
But  if  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  them  for  later  use  they 
should  be  treated  in  the  following  way  : 

After  the  seeds  have  been  collected  they  are  subject  to 
what  is  called  "sweating."  The  seeds,  or  fruits,  are  for 
some  time  (about  8  days)  gathered  in  a  heap,  and  when 
signs  of  heating  appear  they  are  spread  and  dried  till 
they  become  completely  siccated.  In  order  to  accelerate 
this  condition,  the  room  in  which  the  jDrocess  of  drying 
is  carried  on  may  be  heated  up  to  90  degrees,  provided 
care  is  taken  for  an  abundant  circulation  of  fresh  air. 

Cleaning  of  the  seeds,  and  removing  the  different 
covers  in  which  they  are  imbedded  require  special  atten- 
tion. A  bag  half  filled  with  those  seeds  that  are 
enclosed  in  dry  shells,  pods,  or  hulls,  is  beaten  with  a 
stick,  and  then  the  seeds  are  winnowed.  Small  quanti- 
ties may  be  cleaned  by  hand. 

Seeds  having  a  fleshy  and  succulent  cover  must  first  be 


70  FOREST    PLANTING. 

denuded  of  it.  This  is  done  by  squeezing  the  kernels 
out  of  the  fleshy  portion,  cleaning  them  in  water,  and 
thereby  freeing  them  from  all  fibrous  and  slimy  parts. 
Then  they  are  dried. 

Winged  seeds  are  usually  slightly  trashed  with  a  stick, 
like  those  which  have  dry  covers,  but  it  is  more  safe 
to  rub  them  with  the  hands,  as  even  the  slightest  beat- 
ing may  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  kernels. 

Seeds  with  woolly  covers  (poplars,  willows,  etc.,)  should 
be  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  This  can  easily  be  done 
when  the  seeds,  either  by  artificial  or  solar  heat  have 
been  dried  to  such  a  degree  that  the  adherent  parts,  by 
the  touch  of  the  fingers,  can,  without  any  effort,  be  sep- 
arated from  the  kernels. 

In  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  seeds  of  the  prin- 
cipal forest  trees,  the  necessary  directions  are  given  in  the 
next  chapter  in  treating  of  the  seeding  of  the  several 
kinds  of  forest  trees.  As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said 
here  that  most  seeds  of  deciduous  trees  will  be  preserved 
over  winter  when  mixed  with  sharp,  moist  (not  wet) 
sand,  and  kept  protected  from  the  access  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  a  place  not  exposed  to  the  cold  and  wet. 

If  large  quantities  of  seeds  of  Oaks,  Beeches,  Hickories 
atid  other  hard-shelled  nuts  are  to  be  kept  over  winter,  a 
kind  of  cellar  should  be  made  in  the  open  field  similar 
to  the  well-known  potato  cellar.  A  ditch  about  7  feet 
wide  and  2  feet  deep  is  dug,  and  the  earth  taken  out  is 
used  to  build  the  side-walls  of  the  cellar.  Over  these  a 
roof  is  laid  of  straw,  reeds,  or  sedges.  In  this  cellar  the 
nuts,  after  having  been  dried  well,  are  piled  up  from  12 
to  14  inches  high,  as  soon  as  the  cold  weather  sets  in, 
and  they  should  be  shoveled  over  during  the  Avinter 
several  times  in  order  to  prevent  heating.  The  gable 
ends  of  the  roof  remain  open  till  the  strong  frost  com- 
mences, when  they  are  closed  with  straw  mats.  The 
nuts  will  be  well  preserved  in  such  a  surface  cellar,  and 


COLLECTION^    AND    TREATMENT    OF    SEEDS.  Tl 

will  not  lose  their  vitality,  even  should  they  show  signs 
of  sprouting  in  the  spring. 

(d)    CONIFEROUS   TREES. 

Much  more  difficult,  but  also  much  more  remunerative, 
is  the  collection  of  the  seeds  of  coniferous  trees.  The 
cones,  from  which  the  seeds  have  to  be  extracted,  should 
be  collected  at  the  time  of  their  maturity.  This  time 
differs  much  with  the  various  kinds.  Hemlock,  and 
Abies  alba  produce  ripe  seeds  late  in  the  fall,  Larch  and 
Spruce  during  the  first  winter,  the  Scotch  Pine  {Pmus 
sylvestris)  matures  its  seed  in  the  second  winter.  The 
exact  time  of  the  maturity  of  the  cones  should  be  rigidly 
observed,  this  period  being  near  the  time  of  the  natural 
distribution  of  the  seeds,  the  extraction  of  them  is  then 
greatly  facilitated. 

The  extraction  of  the  seeds  in  the  cones  is  effected 
either  by  artificial  or  solar  heat.  The  former  mode  is 
generally  employed  in  Europe,  as  it  is  more  expeditious 
and  permits  the  making  of  larger  quantities.  In  Sweden 
and  Germany,  the  countries  where  this  industry  is  most 
cultivated,  there  are  erected  on  the  ground  floor  of  a 
stone  building  heating  apparatuses,  similar  to  those  used 
in  hot-houses,  by  which,  from  a  circuit  of  pipes,  heated 
air  is  conveyed  throughout  the  room.  In  this  room  are 
constructed  scaffoldings,  on  which  may  be  placed  trays  of 
wooden  lattice  or  wire-work,  5  feet  long  and  2  feet 
wide,  in  stages  of  about  6-7  inches  between.  Under  the 
lowest  range  of  trays  drawers  are  placed  to  receive  the 
seeds.  The  trays  are  then  filled  up  three  quarters  of 
their  capacity  with  cones,  and  the  heat  of  the  furnace 
brought  to  a  standard  of  from  80  to  90  degrees.  This 
heat  is  maintained  till  the  cones  open,  whereupon  the 
trays  are  shaken,  commencing  with  the  highest  row,  so 
that  the  seeds  may  fall  from  tray  to  tray  till  they  reach 


7i  FOREST   PLANTING. 

the  drawers  of  the  lowest  tier.  When  the  cones  beneath 
have  opened  as  extensively  as  j^ossible  they  are  taken 
out  and  placed  in  a  churn-like  vessel  with  an  opening,  ])y 
T/hich  the  seeds  which  have  remained  in  the  cones  may 
pass,  and  be  received  in  a  wooden  box  placed  beneath. 
The  cones  are  then  well  shaken  until  completely  emptied 
of  their  seeds,  and  the  empty  cones  are  employed  to  feed 
the  fire  in  the  furnace. 

At  some  places  in  Germany  they  use,  instead  of 
these  hot  houses,  ovens  with  iron  plates  on  the  tops, 
upon  which  the  cones  are  placed,  and  by  heat  forced  to 
discharge  the  seeds.  This  device  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  the  plates  very  often  become  too  hot,  and  the 
seeds  are  burnt  and  deprived  of  their  vitality. 

The  extraction  of  seeds  by  solar  heat  is  preferable  to 
that  by  artificial  heat,  as  the  seeds  thus  obtained,  never 
having  been  exposed  to  excessive  heat,  do  not  lose  their 
vitality.  When  solar  heat  is  to  be  employed,  a  frame- 
work or  scaffolding  similar  to  that  just  before  described 
is  placed  against  the  wall  of  a  building  on  a  southern  ex- 
posure. Upon  this  the  trays  are  arranged  of  such  a 
height  between  that  the  sun's  rays  may  fall  on  all  alike. 
Under  the  lowest  trays  are  drawers  provided  with  cover- 
ings of  thick  cloth,  so  that,  if  rain  falls,  the  seed  may  be 
covered  at  once  and  kept  dry.  The  whole  apparatus  is 
covered  with  a  light  roof,  the  slope  of  which  runs  toward 
the  north.  After  the  cones  have  been  exposed  for  some 
time  to  the  sun  and  summer  heat  they  will  open,  and 
then  they  should  be  shaken,  commencing  with  the  trays 
in  the  upper  tiers  and  proceeding  in  regular  succession 
to  those  of  the  lowest  row,  whereupon  the  seeds  are  col- 
lected in  the  drawer.  When  the  cones  have  opened  as 
much  as  possible  they  are  taken  away  and  put  in  a  churn, 
such  as  has  been  described  above,  for  the  extraction  of 
the  seeds  which  have  remained  in  the  cones. 

If  it  is  desired  to    divest  the  seeds  of  their  wings,  the 


COLLECTION    AND   TREATMENT   OF   SEEDS.  73 

best  mode  is  to  put  them  into  bags,  filled  only  to  one-half 
or  one-third  of  their  capacity,  and  thrashed  slightly  with 
a  stick  till  the  wings  are  separated  from  the  kernels.  The 
contents  of  the  bags  are  cleaned  by  means  of  a  winnow- 
ing fan. 

The  seeds  of  Evergreens  can,  without  danger,  be  pre- 
served for  some  years.  In  such  a  case  they  should  not  be 
separated  from  the  wings.  This  preservation  will  be 
still  more  efficient  when  the  seeds  remain  in  the  mature 
cones,  and  are  extracted  shortly  before  seeding  time. 

For  our  conditions  the  solar  extraction  of  the  seeds  of 
Conifers  is,  undoubtedly,  the  most  advisable  mode,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  safety  and  cheapness  of  this  pro- 
cess, but  because  the  solar  heat  here  is  more  lasting  and 
powerful  than  in  Sweden  or  Germany,  and  the  quality  of 
seed  thus  collected  in  this  country  would  be  the  best 
imaginable. 

In  regard  to  the  duration  of  the  germinating  potver  of 
the  seeds  of  forest  trees,  n)any  efforts  have  been  made  to 
ascertain  the  period  of  time  during  which  the  various 
seeds  retain  their  vitality  ;  but  the  results  have  been  very 
unsatisfactory.  It  is  only  safe  to  say,  that  this  period  is 
with  all  kinds  of  these  seeds  comparatively  a  short  one, 
but  that  most  of  the  seeds  of  Conifers  retain  their  germi- 
nating power  longer  than  those  of  the  decid^ious  trees, 
especially  when  left  in  the  cones,  or  at  best,  when  not 
soparated  from  the  wings,  and  carefully  housed.  How- 
ever, the  seed  of  Spruce,  Cypress,  Hemlock  and  Larch 
should  not  be  used  when  older  than  one  year. 

The  seeds  of  most  of  the  deciduous  trees  lose  their 
vitality  after  the  lapse  of  one  year,  as,  for  instance. 
Oaks,  Chestnuts,  Maples,  Beeches,  Birches,  while  the 
seeds  of  the  Locust,  Arbor  Vitae,  Ash,  Mulberry,  Alder, 
and  Catalpa  retain  it  for  two  years.  Seed  with  a  spongy 
or  fleshy  cover,  as  the  Juniper,  should  be  sown  at  once, 


74  FOREST   PLANTING. 

when  ripe,  because  their  germinating  power  will  be  gone 
after  tiie  exterior  hull  has  become  fully  dry. 

The  safest  way,  therefore,  is  always  to  use  fresh  seeds 
collected  from  the  parent  tree  at  the  time  of  tlieir 
maturity. 

It  has  been  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  seeds  of  plants 
when  not  collected  in  the  locality,  where  they  are  to  be 
planted,  nor  in  a  similarly  conditioned  locality,  should  be 
taken  from  a  colder  rather  than  a  milder  region.  This  rule 
holds  good  also  for  forest  trees,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
advisable  that  forest  nurseries  should  be  located  in  the 
vicinity  of  those  woods  for  whose  renewal  they  are 
destined. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SEEDING    FOREST  TREES. 


The  artificial  regeneration  of  denuded  wood-lands  is 
effected  either  by  sowing  the  seed  of  forest  trees,  or  by 
planting  seedlings.  The  production  of  seedlings  is  prac- 
ticable only  upon  soil  that  is  free  from  growing  weeds  or 
grasses,  and  entirely  clear,  so  that  there  need  be  no  ap- 
prehension that  a  grass  cover  will  be  formed  during  the 
tirst  two  years.  In  such  cases,  if  good  seed  can  be  pro- 
cured at  a  moderate  price,  seeding  large  tracts  of  wood- 
land will  certainly  be  cheaper  than  planting,  besides  the 
areas  thus  seeded  will,  by  the  process  of  thinning,  furnish 
material  for  fuel  or  other  purposes  sooner  than  those 
that  are  set  with  plants ;  still,  taken  all  in  all,  seeding  is 
never  as  certain  as  planting,  and  as  soil  which  is  fit  for 
seeding  (t.  e.  free  from  weeds  and  grasses)  is  also  suitable 
for  the  planting  of  two-year- old  plants,  and  as  such  mode, 
by  proper  manipulation,  requires  little,  if  any,  more  ex- 
pense than  seeding,  we  would  not  recommend  the  latter 


SEEDING    FORESr   TREES.  75 

for  general  culture,  but  would  advise  seeding  only  in 
nurseries  to  raise  the  material  required  for  plantations. 
Therefore,  in  the  following,  we  will  consider  first  the 
beds  upon  which  seedlings  are  raised,  and  then  the 
nursery-rows  into  which  the  seedlings  are  transplanted 
and  cultivated  up  to  the  time  when  they  are  to  go  to  the 
grove  or  place  where  they  are  to  remain  permanently. 
However,  after  having  given  the  instructions  for  seeding 
a  certain  kind  of  forest  trees  upon  seed-beds,  we  shall 
briefly  add  the  most  usual  and  tried  methods  of  using 
these  seeds  in  the  general  culture  of  forest  trees. 

SEED-BEDS   FOR   THE    PRINCIPAL   FOREST  TREES. 

(a)     Seed-beds  for   Coniferous   Trees. 

We  select  some  place  of  good  humus  soil  located  on 
forest  ground,  with  a  protected  situation,  break  it  up  in 
fall  with  the  plow,  divide  it  in  beds  of  from  five  to  six 
feet  width,  and  leave  it  untouched  during  the  winter. 
Should  the  soil  be  covered  with  heath-growth,  or  with  a 
heavy  grass  sod,  the  sward  must,  previously  to  the  plow- 
ing, be  peeled  off  by  the  skim-plow,  and  entirely  removed 
from  the  field,  for,  if  plowed  under,  there  would  be 
formed  in  the  ground,  during  the  next  year,  such  a  thick 
net-work  of  fibres  that  the  seedlings,  when  taken  out  for 
transplanting,  would  lose  many  roots  and  rootlets,  these 
being  kept  in  the  grasp  of  the  dense  matting,  and  there- 
by broken. 

As  soon  as  the  ground  in  spring  has  become  moder- 
ately dry,  the  beds  should  be  plowed  once  more  and  care- 
fully harrowed.  They  are  then  ready  for  the  reception 
of  the  seed.  Four  small  furrows  are  formed  tlie  whole 
length  of  each  bed  by  laying  down  a  lath  four  inches 
wide,  and  pressing  it  into  the  ground  by  walking  to  and 
fro  upon  it.  When  taken  up,  a  drill-row  four  inches  wide 
is  formed,  the  bottom  of  which  offers  a  smooth,  level 


76  FOREST   PLANTING. 

ground  to  the  seed  for  germination.  The  seed  (in  the 
proportion  of  about  20  to  30  pounds  of  winged  seed  to  the 
acre)  is  then  evenly  and  plentifully  strewninto  the  furrows 
and  covered  loosely — not  more  than  one  half  of  an  incn — 
with  well-burnt  sod  ashes,  mixed  with  some  sand,  or  with 
compost.  Good,  fine  humus  soil  taken  from  the  woods  may 
also  be  used,  though  this  is  apt  to  favor  the  growth  of 
weeds  between  the  plants — something  that  always  should 
be  avoided.  A  cover  of  clayey  soil  should  never  be  ap- 
plied, this  being  conducive  to  form,  from  rain  or  water- 
ing, a  crust  which  prevents  the  seedlings  from  freely 
breaking  through  the  surface. 

To  ward  off  birds,  especially  wild  pigeons,  from 
damaging  the  seedlings  by  eating  the  tops  as  soon  as  they 
appear  above  the  ground,  it  isnecessar}'  to  cover  the  beds 
with  dry  sedges  and  boughs — pines  preferred,  as  spruce 
and  hemlock  drop  the  leaves  too  readily — until  the  leaves 
of  the  young  plants  have  developed  and  thrown  off  the 
tops.  In  a  dry  season  it  is  necessary  to  carefully  water 
the  beds  in  order  to  assist  in  the  uniform  sprouting  of 
the  germs  ;  but  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent 
the  soil  from  becoming  crusted.  Weeds  should  be  en- 
tirely eradicated,  and  the  ground  between  the  drills  well 
stirred  up,  a  work  which  requires  but  little  labor,  if 
done  in  time.  After  every  good  weeding  the  drills  should 
be  filled  up  with  some  compost.  Weeding  and  stirring 
the  soil  cf  the  seed-beds  should  be  entirely  omitted  late 
in  fall,  otherwise  frost  will  hurt  the  seedlings.  In  the 
second  year  the  young  plants  must,  whenever  the  soil  had 
been  stirred  up,  be  covered  at  the  roots  with  some  earth. 
After  the  lapse  of  two  years — or  if  very  strong 
plants  are  desired — after  three  years  the  seedlings  are 
ready  for  transplanting,  those  of  the  common  pine, 
white  pine  and  larch  being  already,  after  one  year's 
growth,  fit  for  this  operation.  In  the  mountains  the 
young  plants  are  exposed   to  greater  hardships  than  on 


SEEDIKG    FOKEST  TREES.  77 

the  plains.  There  seedlings  are  not  transplanted  before 
they  have  reached  the  fourth  or  fifth  year.  They 
are  then  taken  up  in  large  balls  and  brought  to  the 
planting-ground,  where  they  are  carefully  separated 
from  the  ball,  and  planted,  as  is  described  in  the  next 
chapter. 

Some  people  sow  broadcast  upon  seed-beds  laid  out  four 
feet  wide,  and  separated  by  small  paths,  using  for 
the  acre  from  30  to  40  pounds  of  cleansed  seed,  that  is, 
double  the  amount  of  seed  required  in  drill  rows.  But 
this  method  cannot  be  recommended,  as  the  cleansing  of 
such  beds  is  very  difficult,  and  the  seedlings,  when  they 
are  going  to  be  taken  up,  cannot  be  handled  so  carefully 
as  when  raised  in  drill-rows. 

^  Seeding  on  a  large  scale  is  operated  either  with  cones 
or  seeds,  the  latter  being  either  winged  or  unwinged. 
The  cultivation  of  the  grounds  to  be  seeded  down  de- 
pends much  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil,  as  a  loose  soil 
requires  less  stirring  up  than  a  compact  one.  On  very  light 
soil,  especially  on  heaths  having  only  a  very  thin  surface 
growth,  or  none  at  all,  and  on  mountains  with  a  very  thin 
sward,  no  plowing  should  be  employed;  cross  harrowing 
with  the  iron  harrow  is  in  such  cases  sufficient  to  prepare 
a  good  seed-bed.  The  seed  is  then  properly  distributed, 
and  covered  by  dragging  over  the  field  with  a  brush- 
harrow — i.  e.  a  wooden  harrow,  between  the  teeth  of 
which  twigs  have  been  entwined,  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  entering  the  soil. 

Seeding  cones  on  large  tracts  is  now  much  recom- 
mended, and  this  coincides  with  my  own  experience. 
There  was  a  sandy  area  of  about  80  acres  which  had  been 
exhausted  by  growing  rye  and  oats  during  many  years  with- 
out manuring,  so  as  to  be  at  last  unable  to  produce  any- 
thing but  some  sheep  fescue  and  wild  grasses.  This 
tract  was  in  fall  lightly  plowed,  remaining  during  the 
winter  in  this  state.      Early  in  spring  it  was  harrowed 


78  FOREST    PLANTING. 

smootlily,  whereupon  matured  pine-cones,  collected 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  preceding  winter,  were  at 
the  rate  of  5  bushels  per  acre  evenly  distributed  over  the 
field.  When  the  heat  in  June  had  fully  opened  the 
cones,  the  field  was  dragged  over  with  the  brush- 
harrow,  the  dragging  being  only  practised  to  shake 
the  cones,  and  make  them  discharge  those  seeds  which 
were  still  kept  in  the  scales.  The  tract  was  then  left 
undisturbed.  During  the  next  spring  so  many  plants 
had  come  up,  that  this  plot,  by  thinning,  furnished 
sufficient  seedlings  to  restock,  for  two  years,  some  large 
openings  m  the  adjommg  woods. 

One  bushel  of  pine-cones  weighs  about  45  pounds, 
contains  about  3,000  cones  with  1  pound  clean  seed, 
or  about  70,000  kernels. 

Seeding  Pines  in  open  fields  is  often  done  broadcast 
with  clean  seed,  using  for  the  acre  from  four  to  five 
pounds.  If  Spruces  are  seeded,  one  pound  per  acre 
should  be  added.  If  vv^inged  seed  is  used,  one  quarter 
of  the  quantity  just  specified  must  be  added.  For  the 
proper  distribution  of  the  seed,  such  sowing  machines 
are  commonly  used  as  are  employed  in  seeding  clover. 
Should  it  be  advisable  to  mix  Pine  seed  with  Spruce  and 
Larch,  one  pound  of  the  Spruce  and  Larch  is  substituted 
for  half  a  pound  of  Pine. 

Mostly,  however,  large  tracts  are  seeded  by  drilling 
in  the  Pine  seeds  by  which  operation  one-third  part  of 
the  seed  re'(uired  in  broadcast  sowing  will  be  saved. 

As  for  the  time  of  seeding,  it  makes  a  difference 
whether  cones  or  seeds  are  used.  The  former  should  be 
distributed  early  in  spring,  while  the  latter  are  sown  when 
the  temperature  has  become  somewhat  warmer. 

The  best  way  to  cover  the  seeds  of  the  cones  is  that 
which  has  been  suggested  heretofore,  as  only  a  light 
cover  is  required.  Clean  seeds  are  usually  covered  with 
a  wooden  harrow,  the  teeth  of  its  front  row  only  being 


SEEDIISTG    FOEEST  TREES.  79 

permitted  to  operate,  while  the  others  are  interwoven 
"with  small  twigs  or  branches  of  willows.  In  light  soils 
the  seed  should  not  be  covered  deeper  than  one  quarter 
of  an  inch,  while  m  heavy  soils  the  cover  should  be  even 
thinner. 

(b)     Beds  for  tJie  nut-bearing  Trees,  especially  for 
OaJc,  C7iest?iut  and  Hickory  Trees. 

The  storing  of  acorns,  chestnuts  and  hickory  nuts 
during  the  winter  being  attended  by  many  difficulties, 
on  account  of  their  being  easily  injured  by  frost,  wet, 
dry  and  heating,  fall  seeding  can  only  be  recommended, 
and  this  mode  is  always  successful,  if  the  mice  be  kept 
from  the  seed.  Poisoned  wheat  or  corn  in  drain-pipes 
has  proved  most  useful.  On  the  thoroughly  worked  and 
well  prepared  seed-beds,  four  drills  about  15  inches  apart, 
and  two  inches  deep  for  acorns  and  chestnuts,  and  three 
inches  deep  for  walnuts  and  hickory  nuts,  are  opened 
with  the  hand  hoe,  and  healthy,  well  selected  acorns  or 
nuts  placed  in  the  rows  so  close  that  they  nearly  touch 
each  other,  whereupon  the  drills  are  raked  perfectly 
even  with  the  soil  of  the  bed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  fill 
the  rows  with  ashes  or  burnt  sods,  or  with  compost ;  but 
where  the  means  permit  this  application,  it  will  be  found 
of  great  advantage  in  the  development  of  the  plants. 
The  beds  are  then  covered  with  dry  leaves,  two  inches 
high,  and  burdened  with  brush-wood  to  prevent  uncover- 
ing by  winds.  "When  spring  opens  with  warm  days,  the 
leaf-cover  is  removed  and  piled  alongside  the  beds. 
After  the  plants  have  sprung  up  the  ground  should  be 
cleansed  and  thoroughly  raked.  The  leaves  have  then  to 
be  scattered  between  the  drills,  to  be  used  as  a  mulch  for 
preventing  the  grov/th  of  weeds. 

The  one-year-old  plants  may  be  transplanted  to  their 
place  of  destination  (groves),  if  game  is  not  apt  to  damage 


80  FOREST    PLANTING. 

them  there.  Commonly,  however,  they  have  to  be  trans- 
plunted  to  the  nursery,  and  raised  to  a  height  of  from 
five  to  six  feet  to  prevent  game  from  eating  the  tops. 
This  pcint  will  be  mentioned  agam  further  on  ;  here  we 
only  i-emark  that  if  (what  we  prefer)  two-year  plants 
be  used  for  the  start  m  the  nurseries,  the  seed-beds,  during 
the  second  year,  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  and  the  soil 
between  the  drills  kept  loosened. 

Seeding  large  tracts  of  ^cood-lands  with  acorns  is  often 
done  because  the  transplanting  of  oaks,  on  account  of 
their  large  tap-roots,  is  not  always  successful.  Some 
species,  as  for  instance,  Querciis  Ilex  ov  semper vir ens,  ave 
only  propagated  by  placing  the  acorns  into  the  holes 
where  the  trees  arc  to  remani,  because  they  form 
already  in  the  first  year  a  tap-root  three  feet  in  length. 

In  general,  the  seeding  of  large  tracts  with  nuts  or 
acorns  is  done  in  the  foUowiiig  manner  : 

1.  On  soil  which  is  not  too  heavy  throw  broad- 
cast the  seeds  (about  8  bushels  to  the  acre)  over  the  un- 
plowed  field,*  either  harrowing  or  plowing  under  the 
kernels.  On  such  fields  sometimes  furrows,  three  feet 
distant,  are  opened  (from  three  to  four  inches  apart)  in 
which  the  acorns  or  nuts  are  laid,  and  covered  three 
inches  deep  with  the  loose  soil  taken  from  the  top  of  the 
furrow  ridge.  Four  bushels  of  seed  will  be  required  for 
this  operation. 

3.  ]\IoGtly  the  lands  to  be  seeded  down  with  nut-bsar- 
ing  forest  trees,  especially  when  the  ground  consists  of 
heavy  loam,  should  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed,  wherc- 

*  Under  favorable  circumstances  acorns  will  sprout  and  thrive  even  if 
very  little  or  no  pains  at  all  is  taken  for  their  growth.  Mr.  Wm.  Pick- 
hardt,  of  New  York,  who  o\^ns  about  24,000  acres  of  burnt-over  wood- 
lands near  Schvoon  Lake,  in  the  Adiroiidacks,  some  years  ago,  in  March, 
sowed  upon  the  snow  three  tons  of  white  pine  seed,  and  one  hundred 
bushels  of  acorns  of  the  German  oak.  He  succeeded  so  well  that  the 
oak  seedlings,  one  year  after  planting,  measured  from  two  to  three 
inches. 


SEEDING    FOKEST   TREES.  81 

upon  in  distances  of  about  three  feet,  furrows  about  4 
inches  deep  are  opened  witli  a  small  plow,  and  the  acorns 
or  nuts  placed  therein,  from  three  to  4  inches  apart. 
This  culture  requires  about  four  bushels  of  seed  to  the 
acre.  Still  less  seed  is  needed  when  it  is  put  in  with  a 
drill,  the  teeth  of  which  should  run  from  3  to  4  inches 
deep.  Make  the  rows  three  feet  distant,  and  deposit  the 
seed  from  three  to  four  inches  apart.  In  this  case  there 
are  only  from  2  to  2'/2  bushels  consumed. 

In  regard  to  the  number  of  bushels  of  seed  used  m 
seeding  large  tracts,  due  regard  should  be  given  to  the 
size  of  the  kernels,  the  above  named  number  of  bushels 
being  calculated  only  for  the  largest  acorns  or  nuts. 
When  using  smaller  sized  nuts  or  acorns,  the  said  quan- 
tity of  seeds  should  be  decreased  proportionately.  As  for  the 
proper  depth  to  cover  the  seeds  of  nut-bearing  trees,  the 
quality  of  the  soil  plays  an  important  part  in  it.  In  a 
close,  heavy  soil  a  thinner  covering  is  required  than  in  a 
light,  gravely  or  sandy.  "While  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3 
inches  is  quite  sufficient  to  make  the  seeds  germinate  in 
the  former,  it  will  do  them  good,  if  covered  in  the  latter, 
as  deep  as  from  4  to  5  inches  ;  and  this  depth  is  usually 
resorted  to  when  the  seeds  are  sown  broadcast  over  an 
uncultivated  field  with  light  soil,  and  plowed  under. 

{c)     Beds  for  Beeches. 

The  seed-beds  for  the  Beech  tree  are  treated  precisely 
like  the  foregoing,  except  that  the  leaves'  cover  remains 
unremoved  for  a  longer  time,  to  prevent  too  early  a 
germination  of  the  seed,  the  young  plants  being  very 
susceptible  to  frost.  Besides,  these  plants  require  much 
protection,  at  least  for  the  first  year,  against  excess  of  air 
and  sun-light.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  locate  them 
so  as  to  shelter  the  young  plants  against  the  south  side. 
If  this  cannot   be  done,   then    pine  boughs   should  be 


b:i  FOREST   PLANTING. 

driven  in  suitable  intervals  into  the  beds,  although  the 
cleansing  and  loosening  of  tin.  soil  will  be  made  tedious 
by  it. 

As  it  is  less  difficult  to  store  beech-nuts  for  the  winter 
than  other  nuts,  seeding  in  spring  gives  often  good  re- 
sults. But  we  prefer  fall  seeding,  having  thus  obtained 
more  vigorous  j^lants. 

Well-managed  Beech  forests  are  never  permitted  to  be- 
come denuded,  but  are  rejuvenated  by  preserving  so 
many  large  trees  as  are  required  to  drop  sufficient  seed 
nuts,  and  to  cover  the  soil,  thus  furnishing  to  the  self- 
sown  seedlings  the  much  needed  protection  against  sun 
and  air,  U23  to  the  time  when  they  can  get  along  without 
further  protection. 

Seeding  beech  nuts  successfully  on  a  large  scale  re- 
quires not  only  the  proper  soil — good  loamy  soil,  some- 
what calcareous — but  also  a  most  thorough  cultivation  of 
the  grounds  to  the  deptli  of  from  10  to  13  inches.  The 
nuts  are  broadcast  seeded  over  the  unharroued  field, 
using  from  3  to  4  bushels  per  acre,  and  thereupon  har- 
rowed in  about  one  inch  deep  on  heavy,  and  from  2  to  3 
inches  deep  on  lighter  soil.  Usually,  however,  seeding  is 
done  in  drills  from  3  to  4  feet  apart,  using  one-half  of 
the  quantity  of  seed  employed  in  broadcast  seeding. 
Sometimes  the  nuts  are  planted  in  holes  made  at  inter- 
vals of  3  feet.  The  rows  are  from  3  to  4  feet  apart.  For 
this  operation  only  half  a  bushel  of  nuts  is  required. 

The  usual  time  of  seeding  is  in  spring,  when  cold 
weather  is  over,  and  no  late  frosts  are  expected,  as  the 
young  plants,  which  will  come  up  in  about  three  weeks, 
are  very  tender,  and  liable  to  be  killed  by  late  frosts, 
unless  well  protected. 

(d)     Seed-heds  for  AsJies. 

The  seeds  of  Ashes  ripen  very  late  in  autumn,  and 
therefore  are  often  left  on  the  trees  until  the  next  spring, 


SEEDING    FOEEST   TREES.  83 

when  seed  twigs  may  be  cut  with  hedge  shears.  The 
seed  gathered  in  fall  should  be  air-dried,  and  during  the 
winter  stored  in  the  barn.  If  it  be  not  practicable  to  dry 
them  satisfactorily,  they  should  be  mixed  with  dry,  sandy 
soil,  and  laid  in  small  heaps  on  a  place  which  is  protected 
against  rain  and  frost.  To  prevent  them  from  heating, 
the  heaps  should  be  turned  over  during  the  winter 
several  times. 

In  spring  the  seeds  are  freed  from  the  sacd  by  sifting. 
They  are  then  so  closely  distributed  in  the  drills  of  the 
well  prepared  bed  that  the  winged  seed  kernels  lap  one 
over  tlie  other.  The  drill-rows  are  one  inch  deep  and 
two  inches  wide.  After  carefully  covering  the  seeds 
about  half  an  inch,  the  beds  are  raked  and  overspread 
four  inches  high  with  moss,  heath,  straw  or  leaves,  on  the 
top  of  which  should  be  laid  brushes  or  twigs  to  keep  this 
light  cover  in  position,  and  to  prevent  the  growing  of 
weeds.  In  this  condition  the  beds  remain  till  next 
spring  when  the  cover  is  removed,  whereupon  the  plants 
appear  above  the  ground.  As  these  seeds  mostly  require 
a  longer  rest  before  they  germinate,  it  is  advisable,  in 
order  to  avoid  damage  by  mice  upon  the  seed-bed,  and 
damage  by  overgrowing  with  weeds  in  the  field  culture, 
to  properly  store  the  seed  till  fall  time,  and  sow  them  at 
that  time. 

Weeding  and  loosening  the  soil  between  the  drills,  and 
slightly  covering  the  root-crowns  of  the  young  seedlings 
is  here,  as  in  all  seed-beds,  a  necessary  requirement. 

Ashes,  Elms  and  Maples,  which  in  forest  economy 
are  considered  closely  allied,  are  seldom  found  as  pure 
stock,  because  they  lose,  in  the  middle  of  their  life  term, 
their  soil-shading  quality,  allow  the  impoverishment  of  the 
soil,  and  the  springing  up  of  valueless  bushes  and  trees. 
But  if  mixed  together  in  seeding  large  tracts,  good  re- 
sults may  be  anticipated.  For  an  acre  there  would  bo 
required  for  each  kind,  if  sown  separately,  pure  cleaned 


84  FOREST   PLANTING. 

seed,  viz.:  for  Ashes,  about  50  pounds;  Maples,  30 
pounds  ;  and  Elms,  25  pounds.  If  mixed  together  one- 
third  part  of  each  of  these  quantities  of  seed  should  be 
used  to  seed  an  acre  broadcast,  and  only  one-sixth  part 
if  seeded  in  drill-rows.  The  covering  should  be  light 
and  should  not  exceed  half  an  inch  ;  to  effect  this  the 
brush  harrow,  or  the  reversed  wooden  harrow  is  em- 
ployed to  cover  the  seed. 

(e)     Seed-beds  for  Maples. 

Although  some  varieties  of  the  Maple  tribe  can  be 
propagated  by  shoots,  layers  and  cuttings,  they  are  prin- 
cipally increased  by  seeding.  The  seed  of  most  varieties 
ripens  in  spring  or  early  summer,  and  should  then  at 
once  be  sown  in  well  prepared  beds.  Only  the  acer 
pseudo  platanus  arrives  at  maturity  in  October.  Its 
seed  soon  loses  the  power  of  germinating,  and  should  be 
used  in  the  same  fall ;  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it 
over  winter,  the  air-dried  seed  should  be  put  in  bags, 
fastened  to  the  beams  of  the  barn  in  a  place  where  no 
frost  penetrates.  Mixing  the  seed  thus  with  dry  sand, 
and  then  placing  it  where  it  will  not  freeze,  preserves 
the  vitality  of  the  seed. 

AVhen  sown  in  fall,  precautions  should  be  made  against 
ravages  by  moles  and  micf — animals  that  are  very  fond 
of  these  seeds.  In  selecting  the  seed  attention  should  be 
paid  to  its  condition.  When  the  wings  begin  to  turn 
brown  and  the  cotyledons  are  green  and  succulent,  the 
seed  is  all  right ;  but  when  the  green  color  has  dis- 
appeared, the  kernels  will  not  sprout. 

Maple  seed  is  sown  in  the  same  manner  as  Ash,  viz. : 
very  close,  because  the  seed-wings  take  up  much  room. 
But  no  cover  of  moss,  leaves,  or  bushes  is  required,  as 
the  plants,  when  sown  in  autumn,  come  up  early  in 
spring,  and  are  not  susceptible  to  frost?. 


SEEDING    FOREST   TREES.  85 

These  seed-beds  would  always  give  the  best  result  if 
tlie  mice  did  not  destroy  the  seedlings  in  the  second 
winter  by  gnawing  the  young  bark.  This  is  difficult  to 
prevent  unless  the  mice  can  be  exterminated  before  win- 
ter sets  in,  for  the  most  damage  is  done  during  the 
winter,  under  cover  of  snov/. 

If  sown  in  spring  the  seed  sprouts  in  from  four  to  five 
weeks,  with  the  exception  of  acer  campestre,  which  does 
not  make  its  appearance  before  the  second  year.  Tlie 
seed,  wlien  sown  in  spring,  should  not  bj  covered 
more  than  half  an  inch,  and  the  ground  should  be 
shaded  with  leaves  or  straw  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
weeds. 

The  bushel  of  air-dried  Maple  seed  weighs  about  15 
pounds.  If  it  sliould  be  determined  upon  to  seed  an  acre 
broadcast  with  Maples,  two  bushels,  or  about  30  pounds 
of  seed  would  be  required,  and  for  drill-seed  about  one- 
half  of  this  quantity.  But  for  reasons  given  above  it 
will  come  seldom  to  this.  The  cover  of  broadcast  sown 
seed  must  be  light,  and  should  not  be  thicker  than  one- 
half  of  an  inch. 

(/)     Seed-beds   for   Elms. 

The  seeds  are  ripe  in  June,  and  can  be  kept,  with 
care,  till  next  spring  ;  but  it  is  better  to  sow  them  at 
once.  For  this  purpose  the  beds  are  in  time  prepared,  and 
the  drill-rows  (made  in  the  same  manner  as  for  evergreen 
seed-beds)  entirely  filled  with  seed,  and  thereupon  lightly 
covered,  at  most  on'e  half  of  an  inch,  with  prepared 
loose  humus  soil  or  compost.  The  beds  being  apt  at  that 
season  soon  to  become  dry,  it  is  necessary  to  water  them 
in  the  evenings,  and  to  use  a  cover  of  straw  or  heaths 
until  the  plants  spring  up.  Usually  this  occurs  from  six 
to  eight  days  after  sowing,  but  it  may  be  retarded  by  the 
season  from  two  to  three  weeks. 


86  FOREST   PLAXTIls^G. 

Elms  produce  a  great  many  infertile  seed  pods.  Be- 
fore sowing  them  they  should  be  examined  by  a  touch  of 
the  fingers,  and  by  this  manipulation  should  be  ascer- 
tained whether  the  seed  pods  in  the  center  of  the  round 
wings  are  full  or  empty.  Accord.ing  to  the  proportion 
of  empty  seed  pods,  the  seed  should  be  used  more  or 
less  freely.  It  is  not  advisable  to  obtain  this  seed  from 
dealers,  as  it  will  seldom  germinate.  The  grown  up 
trees  yield  always  plenty  of  seed,  and  this  can  be  easily 
gathered  by  those  who  want  it. 

If  broadcast  seeding  in  seed-beds  be  resorted  to,  there 
will  be  required  for  the  square  rod  one-quarter  of  a 
pound  good  seed.  This  is  covered  by  sifting  over  it  a 
layer  of  good  compost,  one-half  of  an  inch  thick. 

Broadcast  seeding  on  a  larger  scale  would  require  5 
bushels,  or  about  15  pounds  per  acre  ;  while  drilling  in 
rows  witli  the  proper  distance  (3  feet)  could  be  done  with 
one-half  of  the  quantity  of  seed  named. 

(g)     Seed-teds  for  Alder-trees  and  Birches. 

Although  the  Birch  and  Alder-tree  do  not  rank  very 
high  among  forest  trees,  they  are  valuable  in  the  econ- 
omy of  wood-lands,  as  they  often  thrive  in  localities 
where  no  other  forest  tree  would  grow,  thus  preserving 
the  much  desired  soil-humidity  and  preventing  soil  ex- 
haustion by  surface  evaporation.  They  belong  to  the 
same  order — Betulacece  —  but  differ  entirely  in  their 
habits  and  requirements  as  to  soil  and  situation. 

The  Alder  is  mostly  found  in  wet  and  swampy  grounds, 
whereas  most  varieties  of  the  Birch  are  satisfied  with 
poor,  dry  and  gravely  soil,  and  are  not  influenced  eitlier 
by  the  chemical  properties  of  the  soil  or  the  nature  of 
the  lay. 

The  Seed-heds  for  Birches  and  Alder-trees  are  treated 
exactly  like  those   for    Eims,    with    the   exception  that 


SEEDING  FOREST  TREES.  87 

their  seeds  do  not  like  a  very  loose  soil,  and  therefore  the 
beds  should  be  rolled  down  a  little  before  distributing 
the  seed.  Seeds  ripen  from  midsummer  till  October,  and 
should  be  sown  immediately  after  gathering  when  the 
catkins  are  still  wet ;  the  plants  appear  then  early  in 
spring.  The  Alder  seedlings  being  very  tender  and 
liable  to  be  destroyed  by  frost,  should  be  covered  by  some 
leaves  and  twigs.  Birch  seedlings  are  hardy,  and  require 
no  protection  ;  but  the  proper  sowing  time  for  both  is 
spring,  and  broadcast  sowing  is  mostly  employed.  The 
seed  should  be  very  lightly  covered  with  a  wooden  rake. 
If  sowing  m  drills  is  preferred,  the  seed  is  sown  in  broad 
beds  in  the  manner  of  the  coniferous  trees,  and  the 
beds  are  kept  free  of  weeds  till  the  plants  have 
sprung  up.  They  require  careful  cleaning  and  frequent 
v/atering  during  the  first  year.  In  the  second  year  they 
reach  already  a  height  of  from  8  to  10  inches  in  suitable 
soil — loose  and  rich  in  vegetable  mould — and  are  able  to 
be  transplanted.  But  if  they  shall  be  used  to  fill  out 
vacant  spaces  in  the  woods,  or  to  form  coppice-wood, 
three-year-old  plants  should  be  selected. 

It  is  also  advisable  to  gather  these  seeds  rather  than  to 
obtain  them  from  seedsmen,  and  for  the  same  reason  as 
above  mentioned.  The  cones,  or  catkins,  are  picked  in 
fall  when  their  color  has  turned  into  brown,  and  before 
frost  appears.  They  should  then  be  air-dried,  put  in 
bags  and  hung  up  iu  a  barn.  In  spring  they  will  be 
found  to  have  mostly  opened  and  dropped  the  seed. 
Should  the  deliverance  of  the  seed  not  have  been  fully 
accomplished,  the  cones  have  to  be  taken  into  a  warmed 
room,  where  they  soon  will  discharge  the  rest  of  the 
seed.  Some  collect  the  seeds  by  thrashing  in  fall  the 
air-dried  catkins  in  the  bags,  and  store  the  cleaned  seed 
in  a  dry  barn  in  small  piles  protected  against  very 
cold  and  wet  air,  while  some  cut  in  the  fall  the  twigs  on 
which  the  cones  grow,  hang  them  during  the  winter  up  in 


88  FOREST    PLANTING. 

the  barn,  and  thrash  them  in  spring.  At  all  events  there 
should  be  used  for  seeding  only  fresh  seed,  as  the  germ- 
inating jiower  of  most  of  the  varieties  lasts  not  longer 
than  one  year. 

Birches  and  Alder-trees  cojDse  very  well,  and  are  in 
this  way  especially  regenerated  wherever  this  is  practi- 
cable and  advisable.  This  is  principally  the  case  witli 
the  Alder-tree,  as  it  grows  in  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years  to  a  pretty  large  tree.  The  Birches  do  not  grow 
so  quickly,  but  attain  later  a  very  respectable  circum- 
ference. 

Seeding  on  a  large  scale  gives,  especially  with  Birches, 
almost  always  good  results.*  The  soil,  which  usually 
will  be  of  a  light  kind,  should  not  be  loosened  too  much, 
and  the  seed  only  slightly  covered  with  the  brush-har- 
row. For  broadcast  seeding  there  are  required  from  20 
to  30  pounds  per  acre.  Seeding  in  drills  is  seldom  em- 
ployed, but  should  it  be  determined  upon,  one-third  of 
the  seed  used  in  broadcast  seeding  at  least  is  spared. 
Birches  are  especially  serviceable  for  the  protection  of 
Oaks  when  cultivated  on  a  large  scale.     In  such  cases  10 


*Thi8  I  can  recommend  from  my  own  experience.  I  recall  an 
instance  where  a  large  tract  of  cleared  wood-land  with  poor,  gravely 
soil  had  been  cultivated  with  crops  for  several  years,  and  was  tlien  laid 
to  rest.  Soon  it  became  covered  with  coarse  grasses  and  small  bushes. 
At  the  end  of  one  summer  this  tract  was  burnt  over  and  prepared  for 
spring  seeding.  Next  spring  oats  were  sown  and  properly  plowed  in 
and  harrowed.  Some  days  later  cleansed  birch  seed,  about  15  pounds  to 
the  acre,  was  sown  broadcast  over  the  oats,  and  lightly  covered  with 
the  brush-harrow.  The  result  was  surprisingly  successful.  The  birch 
seedlings,  coming  up  much  later  than  the  oats,  were,  during  the  summer, 
protected  against  the  sun  and  kept  back,  so  that  at  harvest-time  the 
young  plants  were  not  hurt  by  the  cradle.  After  the  removal  of  the 
oats  from  the  field,  the  birch  seedlings  received  a  new  start,  and  entered 
well  prepared  into  the  M'inter  season.  Seedlings  were  so  numerous  that 
two  years  later  a  gi-eat  many  plants  were  taken  up,  and  used  for  setting 
out  a  coppice  plantation.  The  expense  of  the  whole  operation  was 
fully  covered  by  a  rich  oats  crop. 


SEEDING   FOREST   TREES.  89 

pounds  of  Birch  seed  are  used  and  sown  over  the  ground, 
after  the  acorns  have  been  properly  planted. 

The  arboreous  vegetation  in  American  forests  contains 
many  varieties  which  cannot  be  considered  as  forest  trees 
proper,  and  yet  are  of  great  value  either  to  serve  as  soil 
cover,  nurses,  or  to  fill  in  between  the  main  crops,  or  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  principal  forest  trees  in  any 
other  wise.  To  these  belong  the  Poplars,  Willows,  Bass- 
wood,  Locust,  Catalpa,  Tulip  tree  (variety  of  the  Mag- 
nolias) and  Hornbeam.  The  propagation  of  these  trees 
offers  no  difficulties  ;  catalogues  of  our  seed  dealers  give 
satisfactory  information  in  regard  to  that  point.  But 
the  great  value  the  Hornbeam  has,  both  as  copse-wood 
and  as  an  intermixture  with  other  forest  trees,  may 
justify  a  few  remarks  in  regard  to  itsproj^agation.  The  seed 
contained  in  hop-like  catkins  ripen  in  the  fall.  A  bushel 
of  winged  seed  contains  from  6  to  7  pounds  of  clean  seed. 
The  catkins  should,  after  being  gathered^  be  spread  out 
and  dried  in  the  shade  until  the  seed  can  be  thrashed  in 
bags.  As  the  seeds  do  not  keep  long,  it  is  advisable 
to  sow  them  at  once,  or  at  latest  next  spring,  after  having 
preserved  them  during  the  winter  in  the  same  way  in 
which  Ash  seeds  are  preserved.  Thus  preserved  the  seed 
may  be  kept  till  the  second  spring.  The  seed  should  be 
covered  very  slightly,  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  It  is  best 
to  use  only  fully  cleaned  seed.  Of  these,  for  broadcast 
seeding,  are  used  from  22  to  24  pounds  per  acre ;  for 
seeding  in  drills,  12  to  IG  pounds. 

An  essential  requirement  for  every  seed-bed  of  forest 
trees  is  tlie  selection  of  good  wood-land  soil,  the  best  that 
can  be  found,  but  rather  mild  loamy  than  heavy 
clayey  soil  ;  for  seedlings  grown  on  good  soil  are  much 
better  than  those  grown  on  poor  grounds.  They  have 
more  and  better  roots,  and  are  in  a  better  condition  to 
endure  the  shock  sustained  in  transplanting,  and  to  grow 
in  their  new  locality.     But  the  soil  should  not  be  made 


90  FOREST   PLANTING. 

rich  by  manuring,  as  this  produces  a  rank  growth,  which 
prevents  the  proper  ripening  of  the  wood.  All  that  is 
required  is  a  ground  sufficient  to  make  a  healthy  tree. 

The  place  to  be  selected  should  have  a  situation  well 
protected  against  cold  and  drying  winds  ;  and  yet  this 
location  should  not  be  such  as  to  enfeeble  the  seedlings 
and  render  them  unable  to  go  through  the  hardships  of 
young  forest  trees.  If  nurseries  for  forest  trees  are  to 
be  established  upon  the  open  ridges  of  a  mountainous 
country,  the  proper  protection  may  be  obtained  either  by 
fences,  or,  if  permanently  established,  by  surrounding 
them  with  earth  walls  from  6  to  8  feet  high,  on  the  top 
of  which  are  planted  Birches,  Pines  and  Alders. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
PLANTING   FOREST   TREES. 


The  planting  of  forest  trees  can  only  succeed  in  places 
where  there  is  no  grass,  and  where  no  grass  would  or- 
dinarily grow  for  some  years  to  come.  In  such  places, 
especially  in  poor  sandy  or  peaty  soil,  two-year-old  plants 
without  ball  are  usually  selected  for  planting;  assigning, 
of  course,  to  the  proper  soil,  the  suitable  kind  of  trees — 
to  the  poorest  soil  the  Pine  and  Birch.  But  Spruce 
should  always  be  intermixed  even  on  the  poorest 
ground.  The  Spruce  can  be  made  to  grow  upon  such 
soil  by  means  of  abundant  watering.  Even  a  slow  growth 
of  these  trees  is  satisfactory,  as  they  have  only  to 
serve  as  nurses,  and  to  form  the  undergrowth  of  the  pine 
forest. 

The  mode  of  planting  is  as  follows  :  ashes  from  dried 
peat-sods,  or  compost    having   been  prepared  the  sum- 


PLANTING    FOREST   TREES.  91 

mer  or  fall  2:)recediiig  the  planting  season,  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  the  latter  warmed  to 
some  extent,  the  seedlings  are  taken  from  the  seed-bed 
by  a  spade  ;  the  earth  and  the  plants  carefully  separated 
with  the  fingers  so  as  not  to  injure  the  roots  and  fibres. 
Thereupon  lots  of  from  10  to  12  plants  are  placed  to- 
gether, crowns  ol:  roots  exactly  upon  crowns,  and  tap- 
roots shortened  to  the  length  of  from  G  to  8  inches.  The 
plants,  piled  up  in  a  basket  in  which  they  have  to  be  well 
moistened  and  protected  against  the  rays  of  the  sun,  are 
then  taken  to  the  planting  ground.  Here  everything 
should  have  been  in.  time  prepared  for  their  reception. 
Planting  holes  of  about  six  square  inches  are  cleared 
with  the  hoe  in  distances  never  exceeding  one  yard.  On 
ground  which  is  covered  by  moss,  the  latter  is  simply  re- 
moved. 

On  clay  soil  the  holes  should  be  made  in  the  preceding 
fall,  and  should  be  about  10  inches  square,  and  from  7 
to  8  inches  deep  ;  the  earth  dug  out  of  the  holes  should 
be  placed  alongside.  In  the  spring,  shortly  before  plant- 
ing begins,  the  holes  are  filled  up,  the  top  soil  going  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  surface  completely  leveled. 

A  pail  of  brine  is  prepared  principally  of  clay  and 
water,  mixed  with  ashes  or  rich  humus  soil  and  a  little 
salt.  This  mixture  should  have  such  consistency  that  the 
plant  roots,  dipped  into  it,  retain  a  thin  covering,  but 
never  so  much  as  to  paste  the  roots  and  fibres  together. 
This  can  easily  be  ascertained  by  trial.  From  10  to  20 
plants  are  at  a  time  dipped  into  the  brine  so  as  to  coat 
the  roots  preparatory  to  planting. 

The  planter  carries  a  basket  with  thoroughly  Avorked 
compost,  peat  ashes  or  good  humus  soil,  upon  which  the 
coated  plants  are  deposited,  and  a  short-handled  axe. 
The  latter  is  driven  up  to  the  handle  into  the  center  of 
the  prej^ared  and  leveled  spot,  pressed  to  both  sides  and 
then  carefully  taken  out.     With  the  left  hand  two  plants 


93  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

are  lowered  in  the  cleft  to  a  point  jnst  above  the  crown 
of  the  roots,  one  finger  separating  the  plants,  and  while 
thus  suspended  a  handful  of  compost  is  with  the  right 
hand  sifted  into  the  cleft  between  the  plants.  The  axe  is 
then  driven  in  about  one  inch  distance  from  the  cleft  and 
pressed  a  little  toward  it,  so  as  to  cover  the  roots  with 
earth.  The  second  cleft  should  then  be  filled  up  with  a 
few  light  strokes  of  the  axe. 

On  stony  soil  it  would  be  impossible,  or  at  least  very 
difficult,  to  operate  in  the  manner  just  explained.  In 
such  soil  use  should  be  made  of  a  steel-pointed  iron 
planter,  by  which  a  square  hole  is  driven  into  the  ground, 
large  enough  to  set  two  plants  in  the  manner  just  de- 
scribed. 

Watering  the  plants  after  setting  is  very  well,  if  it  is 
done  carefully  with  a  rose  sprinkler,  and  lumping  of  the 
soil  is  avoided  ;  but  generally  it  is  not  necessary,  except 
in  times  of  impending  drought.  Jf  watering  during  the 
hot  season  has  to  be  resorted  to,  it  should  be  done  late  in 
the  afternoon  or  evenings. 

It  will  not  do  to  set  one  or  two-year-old  plants  on  grass 
lands  or  on  such  soil  as  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
grass  and  weeds.  On  such  ground  plants  from  four  to 
six  years  old  should  be  set,  as  these  are  able  to  resist  the 
encroachments  of  grass  and  weeds.  Where  game  may  do 
damage,  deciduous  trees  of  such  height  should  be  planted 
as  to  prevent  the  animals  from  touching  and  eating  the 
top  shoots  of  the  young  trees.  To  raise  trees  of  that 
size,  tree  nurseries  are  necessary.  These  should  be  loca- 
ted at  or  near  the  places  to  be  planted,  so  that  the  con- 
siderable risk  and  expense  of  transporting  larger  trees, 
and  to  acclimatize  the  young  trees  to  the  natural  condi- 
tions of  their  future  habitat  may  not  be  unnecessarily  in- 
creased. The  ground  for  these  nurseries  should  be 
plowed  and  subsoiled  in  fall  to  a  depth,  of  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches,  and  exposed   to  the  action  of  the  air, 


PLANTING   FOREST   TEEES.  93 

rain  and  frost  during  the  winter.  At  the  proper  time  in 
the  following  spring  the  nursery  ground  should  be  har- 
rowed, then  plowed  and  again  harrowed,  and  then  the 
one  or  two-year-old  plants  are  set  in  the  proper  one  of 
the  two  following  ways  : 

(1)    NURSERY   LINES   FOR   CONIFEROUS   TREES. 

Beds  are  laid  out  of  the  same  size  as  seed-beds,  at  most 
six  feet  wide,  in  order  to  permit  from  four  to  five  rows  of 
plants  to  be  set  from  five  to  seven  inches  apart.  The 
rows  are  marked  by  a  cord  or  chain,  and  the  planting  is 
done  by  the  short  handled  axe,  as  just  described,  after 
the  plants  have  been  previously  dipped  into  the  clay 
mixture.  In  these  beds  it  is  desirable  to  set  but  one 
good  plant  to  the  hole.  Watering  immediately  after 
planting  is  necessary;  but  it  should  not  be  done  close  to 
the  plant,  but  at  the  second  cleft. 

Careful  cleaning  and  stirring  the  soil  is  a  matter  of 
course.  But  the  two  operations  should  never  be  con- 
tinued late  in  the  summer,  as  they  encourage  the  tree 
growth  too  late  in  the  season,  and  the  wood  thus  made 
does  not  ripen  well,  but  will  be  killed  by  a  strong  winter 
frost ;  they  should  be  entirely  omitted  the  latter  half  of 
the  summer  previous  to  the  transplanting  of  the  young 
trees,  in  order  that  a  strong  ball  may  be  secured,  and  the 
taking  out  of  the  trees  with  balls  in  the  following  spring 
facililated. 

(2)    NURSERY   LINES   FOR  DECIDUOUS  TREES. 

The  first  thing  to  be  determined  upon  before  laying 
out  these  nursery  lines,  is  the  decision  of  the  question 
whether  Ave  intend  to  raise  only  small  trees,  of  from  three 
to  five  feet  height,  or  larger  ones — up  to  twelve  feet.  In 
the  first  case  the  plants  are  set  from  ten  to  twelve  inches 


94  FOREST   PLAXTIXG. 

apart  in  the  rows  ;  in  the  other  case  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches.  But  even  for  the  hitter  purpose  it 
is  advisable  to  plant  first  closely  (say  ten  inches  apart), 
and  transplant  later  further  apart  at  another  place  in  the 
nursery.  Although  we  would  not  advise  that  a  tree  be 
transplanted  in  the  nursery  more  often  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  attain  the  purposes  aimed  at,  repeated  trans- 
planting, if  carefully  done,  promotes  the  development  of 
the  root  system,  as  each  planting  Avill  require  a  little 
trimming  of  the  roots,  and  by  shortening  of  the  tap- 
roots, which  too  often  run  deeper  than  is  desirable,  the 
growth  of  the  lateral  roots  will  be  favored — this  being 
the  most  desirable  point  in  the  culture  of  whatever  tree 
may  be  in  question.  If  the  transplanting  in  the  nursery 
is  not  done  with  the  proper  care,  and  the  roots,  otving 
to  their  injured  condition,  have  to  be  pruned  heavily,  no 
vigorous  growth  can  be  expected,  but  debilitation  is  in- 
duced and  a  premature  death  must  be  expected.  The 
mode  of  planting  the  one  or  two-year-old  plants  is 
the  same  as  with  the  coniferous  trees ;  but  the  holes 
opened  with  the  axe  must  be  correspondingly  larger  for 
the  greater  root  development  of  the  two-year-old  plants. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  better  plan  that  such  plants  as  have  a 
strongly  developed  root  system  be  transplanted  into  the 
nursery  lines  when  one  year  old. 

In  transplanting  young  trees  of  from  four  to  five  feet 
high  in  the  nursery,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  larger 
ones  of  from  ten  to  tAvelve  feet  high,  the  axe  of  course 
will  not  answer.  In  that  case  holes  of  sufficient  size 
should  be  dug  with  the  spade  and  hoe,  and  the  lateral 
roots  should  be  well  bedded  in  by  hand  in  their  original 
position.  Many  deciduous  trees,  especially  oaks,  incline 
mucli  to  forkiness,  which  tendency  should  be  promptly 
and  carefully  suppressed  in  the  nursery  by  proper  trim- 
ming, unless  it  is  intended  to  raise  such  forky  trees  on 
account  of  their  usefulness  in  certain  manufactures,  as 


PLANTING    FOREST  TREES.  95 

sliip-building,  etc.  But  in  general  the  forester  should 
always  have  the  knife  ready  to  clip  the  inferior  limb  as 
soon  as  forks  appear.  Sometimes  the  superior  limb  has 
to  be  trimmed  off,  if  by  the  growing  of  the  inferior  a 
more  desirable  standard  tree  is  formed.  In  such  cases  no 
certain  rule  can  be  given,  except  not  to  allow  the  tops  of 
the  trees  to  go  into  forklike  shapes. 

PLANTING    WITH   THE   BALL. 

When  coniferous  trees  previously  transplanted  into 
the  nuresry  rows  have  reached  an  age  of  from  four  to  six 
years,  they  are  ready  for  final  transplating  and  have  to 
be  taken  up  with  the  ball — that  is,  without  disturbing 
the  roots  or  removing  the  earth  from  them.  In  this 
condition  they  should  be  put  in  holes  large  enough  to 
give  ample  room  for  the  ball.  The  taking  up  is  done  by 
the  spade,  a  little  ditch  being  dug  along  the  first  row  of 
tlie  plants,  and  the  plants  cut  out  in  square  blocks.  The 
plants  with  the  balls  are  carried  on  barrows  or  carts 
and  deposited  near  the  plant  holes.  Before  setting  in, 
the  planter  must  examine  carefully  the  depth  and  width 
of  the  hole,  as  the  roots  must  have  the  same  position  and 
the  same  level  relative  to  the  earth's  surface  in  their 
new  place  as  they  had  in  their  old  one.  Therefore,  if  the 
holes  are  found  to  be  too  deep,  some  earth  is  thrown  in  ; 
if  too  shallow,  they  are  dug  deeper.  The  tree  is  then  set 
perpendicularly  in  the  center  of  the  hole,  and  the  space 
around  the  ball  filled  in  with  loose  soil,  cind  gently 
pressed  down  with  the  feet. 

It  is  true,  close  planting  does  well  for  quickly  covering 
the  ground.  But  as  this  is  an  expensive  operation,  owing 
to  the  number  of  young  trees  to  be  planted,  and  the  sub- 
sequent labor  of  thinning  them  out,  it  is  usually  better 
to  maintain  a  greater  distance.  The  rows  are  tlien  laid 
out  five  feet  apart,  and  the  trees  in  each  row  three  feet 
from  each  other. 


96  FOKEST   PLANTIXG. 

Diciduons  trees  can  be  transplanted  more  easily  with- 
out ball,  especially  when  they  have  been  already  trans- 
planted, and  thereby  acquired  a  better  developed  root- 
system. 

PLANTING   -WITHOUT  BALL. 

The  larger  deciduous  trees  of  from  six  to  twelve  feet 
in  height  are  always  transplanted  without  ball.  It  is, 
however,  advisable  to  manage  tlie  transjilanting  so  as  to 
retain  some  of  the  old  soil  between  the  rootlets  and 
fibres.  The  holes  are  dug  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
roots,  so  that  they  may  have  room  in  width  and  depth, 
without  changing  in  the  form  they  have  grown. 

On  heavy  soil  the  holes  should  be  opened  in  the  fall, 
if  spring  planting  is  intended,  in  order  that  the  winter 
frost  may  assist  in  breaking  up  the  soil  mechanically.  At 
planting  time  the  young  trees,  unless  they  have  been  taken 
up  in  fall  and  safely  heeled  m  during  the  winter,  are 
taken  out  of  the  nursery,  injured  roots  and  such  as  ex- 
tend too  deep  (especially  the  taproots)  being  trimmed 
off,  the  clay  brine  already  mentioned  is  used,  and  the 
trees  brought  to  the  holes.  Holding  the  tree  with  the 
left  hand  perpendicularly,  the  forest  planter,  using  a  hoe 
in  his  right  hand,  fills  the  spaces  between  the  roots  with 
loose  humus  soil.  If  horizontal  roots  are  bent  down  in 
this  process,  they  should  be  raised  up,  and  supported 
with  earth  so  as  to  keep  their  natural  position.  For  such 
trees  as  have  root  systems  which  incline  to  lateral  exten- 
sion (Spruces,  Beeches,  etc.),  a  little  mound  of  earth 
should  be  made  Jit  the  bottom  of  the  plant-hole,  upon 
which  the  tree  is  set,  so  that  the  roots  spread  out  in  a 
natural  way.  Special  attention  must  be  given  that  the 
roots  are  perfectly  imbedded  in  the  soil  without  leaving 
cavities,  and  that  the  original  position  of  the  fibres  be 
maintained.     The  fertile  top  soil  dug  from  the  plant- 


PLANTIKfi   FOREST  TREES.  97 

hole  should  always  be  i;sed  to  fill  the  bottom  of  the  pit 
to  feed  the  roots  and  fibres,  while  the  raw  soil  taken  from 
the  bottom  serves  for  leveling  the  surface.  Planting  is 
finished  by  gently  pressing  down  the  earth  around  the 
tree  with  the  feet,  and  covering  tlie  recently  disturbed 
soil  with  sods  or  stones,  leaving  uncovered  a  space  of  a  few 
inches  in  diameter  around  the  base  of  the  tree.  The  sod- 
ding Avill  keep  the  dirt  in  the  plant-hole  fresh  and  moist. 

In  cases  where  dryness  or  looseness  of  the  soil  renders 
plant  growth  at  the  start  uncertain,  especially  for  plant- 
ing the  hardy  kinds  of  Pines  upon  sterile  lime-stone  soils 
and  shifting  sands,  tlie  report  of  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture for  1887  recommends  the  'Spuddling  in,"  and 
describes  this  method  as  follows:  "A  thin  puddle  is 
**made  of  two  parts  water  and  one  part  loamy  forest  soil 
''or  mold.  In  planting,  a  conical  hole  is  made  to  re- 
"ceive  the  plant,  and  while  holding  the  plant  in  the 
'*holo,  the  puddle  is  poured  into  it  with  a  cup.  The 
''puddle  must  be  stiff  enough  to  hold  the  plant  at  a  pro- 
sper height;  yet  not  too  thick,  because  in  such  cases 
"it  would  not  fill  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  but  would  ad- 
"  here  to  the  sides,  and  thus  the  tips  of  the  roots  would 
"have  no  covering,  and  would  die  off.  To  be  sure,  in 
"hot  weather  the  upper  loamy  layer  dries  out  quickly 
"and  hardens;  but  this  layer,  not  being  hygroscopic, 
"prevents  the  drying  out  of  the  loAver  strata,  which  is 
"the  imjiortant  point  to  secure  in  the  quickly  drying 
"sand.  The  cost  of  this  method  of  planting  is  about 
"double  that  of  ordinary  planting  in  holes." 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  plant  trees  upon  loose, 
boggy  ground,  where  plant-holes,  if  made  in  the  usual 
way,  would  always  be  full  of  water,  thereby  killing  the 
trees  set  in  them.  In  such  cases  trees  may  be  planted 
entirely  above  the  surface  ground  by  spreading  out  the 
roots,  and  throwing  dry,  good  soil  over  them.  The  coni- 
cal mound  thus  formed  is  then  covered  with  inverted  sods 


98  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

or  soil  taken  from  the  vicinity,  and  the  tree,  if  of  larger 
size,  is  fastened  to  tlie  ground  for  some  time  by  wires  run- 
ning from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  pegs  in  the  ground.  By 
this  method  we  are  able  to  plant  trees  in  places  where  the 
impossibility  of  obtaining  drainage  would  entirely  prevent 
planting  in  the  usual  way.  Trees  with  taproots,  of  course, 
cannot  be  used  for  such  plantations,  as  the  condition  of 
the  underlying  soil  does  not  favor  the  roots  penetrating 
deeply  into  the  ground. 

The  transplanting  of  seedlings  or  saplings  from  the 
woods,  if  this  be  carefully  done,  should  meet  with  the 
same  success  as  if  tliey  were  removed  from  the  nursery. 
Usually,  however,  the  loss  in  transplanting  saplings 
grown  naturally  in  the  woods,  is  much  greater  than 
with  nursery-grown  seedlings,  because  the  forest  planter 
seldom  gives  to  the  young  trees  all  the  opportunities  for 
their  growth  which  are  afforded  to  them  by  the  soil  and 
the  surroundings  in  their  habitat.  To  transplant  spon- 
taneously grown  seedlings  of  the  shade-enduring  kind 
(Beeches,  Spruces,  Hornbeams),  is  much  more  difiicult 
than  to  transplant  seedlings  of  the  light-needing  kinds 
(Pines,  Oaks).  With  the  latter  it  does  not  make  much 
difference  whether  they  are  grown  in  the  woods  or  in  the 
nursery,  whereas  the  former  will  only  succeed  if  the  con- 
ditions of  their  habitats  are  fully  provided  for.  But  if 
this  is  possible,  and  the  removal  is  done  carefully,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  dense  spontaneous  growth  of  saplings 
in  one  part  of  a  forest  can  be  very  serviceable  in  restock- 
ing other  denuded  parts  of  the  forest.  However,  in  order 
to  be  certain  of  success  in  this  matter,  saplings  taken 
from  the  thick  woods  should  first  be  transplanted  into 
nursery  lines,  to  give  them  an  opportunity  to  get  accli- 
matized and  to  obtain,  by  the  help  of  air  and  light,  a 
greater  development  of  the  branches  and  twigs,  which  in 
the  thick  woods  usually  are  suppressed  at  the  expense  of 
the  formation  of  the  trunk. 


PLANTING   FOREST  TREES.  99 

The  general  rules  in  regard  to  trimming  of  roots  and 
tops  hold  true  also  for  the  transplanting  of  seedlings 
taken  from  the  woods.  Experts  in  this  matter,  however, 
contend  that  these  seedlings  should  be  pruned  more  se- 
verely than  those  from  the  nursery. 

In  conclusion  some  remarks  in  regard  to  tree  planting 
in  general  may  still  be  added. 

1.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the  seedlings 
against  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  drying  winds.  Planting, 
therefore,  should  be  done  only  in  mild  weather,  when  no 
strong  winds  prevail,  and  the  sun  is  not  too  powerful. 
If  possible,  the  operation  should  be  performed  during  a 
gentle  rain.  If  this  be  not  practicable,  and  if  we  have 
to  work  in  warm,  sunny  weather,  there  should  be  no  more 
plants  taken  up  from  the  nursery  than  can  be  planted 
within  the  next  hour  ;  for  if  the  young  trees  are  exposed 
to  wind  and  light,  the  roots  and  fibres  often  shrivel 
up,  and  become  unable  to  furnish  food  to  the  tree. 
Should  it  be  impossible  to  observe  this  direction  on  ac- 
count of  the  distance  the  trees  have  to  be  transported, 
while  being  removed  they  should  be  coated  with  the  clay 
brine,  and  be  well  wrapped  in  wet  moss  or  other  damp 
materials,  to  check  loss  of  moisture  through  foliage  and 
roots.  Trees  which  appear  to  have  suffered  from  evap- 
oration of  moisture  during  the  removal,  after  their  ar- 
rival should  be  heeled  in — that  is,  laid  in  trenches, — and 
if  they  have  suffered  much,  they  should  for  some  time 
be  entirely  covei'ed  with  fresh  soil  until  taken  to  the  place 
where  they  are  to  be  planted. 

2.  The  best  time  for  transplanting  trees  is  during 
the  dormant  period,  when  the  sap  in  the  tree  does  not 
run.  This  period  lies  between  the  end  of  autumn  and 
the  beginning  of  spring.  Conifers,  however,  may,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Larch,  be  transplanted  even  after 
budding.  Under  favorable  conditions,  planting  may  be 
done  either  in  fall  or  spring  with  the  same  good  result ; 


100  FOREST   PLAJfTIlSTG. 

but  in  cold  climates  like  ours,  spring  planting  is  to  be 
preferred,  as  only  at  that  time  new  roots  are  formed, 
through  which  the  tree  can  obtain  the  sap  necessary  for 
the  support  of  the  top  growth.  In  such  a  case  the  trees 
to  be  transplanted  should  be  taken  up  in  fall,  and 
heeled  in,  till  planting  time  in  spring  arrives.  This 
treatment  facilitates  spring  planting  very  much. 

3.  All  trees  should  be  planted  a  little  higher  above  the 
ground  than  they  previously  stood;  *  at  least  they  should 
never  be  set  deeper.  In  this  respect  the  place  from  which 
they  are  taken  makes  no  difference,  be  it  the  nursery  or 
the  woods.  It  is  often  the  case  that  workmen  without 
experience  do  the  planting,  and  not  making  the  proper 
allowance  for  the  looseness  of  the  soil,  set  trees  too 
deep  into  the  hole.  Tliis  treatment  kills  a  great  many 
trees  during  the  second  year  after  transplanting  and 
more  often  prevents  their  luxuriant  growth.  But  if 
trees  are  planted  a  little  higher  out  of  the  ground  than 
they  previoulsy  stood,  they  develop  a  better  and  quicker 
growth,  have  a  longer  life  time,  and  will  give  better  tim- 
ber of  an  even  texture. 

All  top  trimming  or  shortening  of  the  main  branches 
should  be  avoided,  even  with  deciduous  trees,  except 
when,  in  taking  up,  the  roots  are  much  bruised  or 
broken,  and,  therefore,  have  to  be  shortened  in  order  to 
obtain  smooth  ends  of  the  roots  and  fibres.  In  such  a 
case  the  top  has  to  be  cut  back  so  far  as  to  restore  the 
proportion  in  which  crown  and  root  system  were 
prior  to  the  removal.  Transplanting  causes  a  great 
disturbance  in  the  life  of  a    plant,    arresting  the  cir- 

*  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  planting  of  one-year-old  Pine 
seedlings  in  very  poor  soil.  In  such  ground  the  seedling  should  be  buried 
80  deep  that  only  its  top  shows  above  the  soil.  How  F.  B.  Hough,  in 
his  "  Elements  of  Forestry,"  on  pai;c  55,  an-ives  at  the  conclusion  that 
"  as  a  rule  trees  in  transj^lanting  should  be  set  deeper  than  they  stood 
before,"  is  more  than  we  can  comprehend,  as  experts  in  this  matter 
agree  in  accepting  the  reverse  to  be  ti-ue. 


PLANTING    FOllEST   TREES.  101 

culation  of  tlie  sap  that  is  constantly  going  on  under 
the  bark  of  the  tree.  To  overcome  this  shock,  and  to 
make  a  new  start,  the  full  activity  of  the  leaves  and  roots 
is  put  in  requisition,  as  the  plant  takes  up  a  part  of  its 
food  by  the  roots,  and  assimilates  it  by  the  leaves.  But 
how  can  this  be  done  when  an  operation  has  been  per- 
formed by  which  both  organs  are  made  to  suffer  so  greatly 
as  to  be  unable  to  discharge  their  ordinary  functions. 

As  for  the  rest,  the  forester,  in  transplanting,  should 
look  into  and  examine  closely  the  princij)les  by  whjch 
nature  is  working,  furnishing  to  the  plants  everything 
which  they  require  for  the  full  development  of  their  in- 
born recuperative  power.  It  is  true,  the  use  of  the  short- 
handled  axe  in  planting  trees  does  not  seem  to  correspond 
with  this  advice,  as  the  side  roots  are  thereby  somewhat 
pressed  together;  but  this  is  only  recommended  with  very 
young  seedlings,  and  especially  with  young  Pines  and 
Oaks,  as  they  have  long  taproots,  the  conservation  of 
which,  is  of  chief  importance  during  the  first  years  of 
their  grovv^th.  Moreover,  as  the  soil  in  the  plant-hole  is 
very  loose,  the  side  roots  of  the  saplings  soon  succeed 
in  vindicating  their  right  of  spreading  sideways. 

TRANSPLANTING    LARGE   TREES. 

The  forester  is  sometimes  called  upon  to  move  large 
trees  from  the  position  in  which  they  have  grown  for 
years  to  another.  This  work  is  often  required  on  moun- 
tain forests,  and  in  such  cases  as  are  called  '^Forest 
Gardening",  and  which  have  been  alluded  to  on  page  62. 
It  necessarily  involves  some  amount  of  anxiety  to  the 
operator ;  it  is  the  most  precarious  and  uncertain  opera- 
tion in  regard  to  its  result,  the  forest  planter  has  to  per- 
form. Success  can  only  be  attained  by  the  most  careful 
execution  of  the  work  in  every  detail. 

The  preparation  ol  the  trees  beforehand  is  undoubtedly 


102  FOREST   PLAXTIl^G. 

tlie  most  important  of  the  details  in  connection  with  the 
work.  No  largo  tree  that  has  stood  a  few  or  more  years 
in  one  position  undisturbed  should  be  transplanted  with- 
out being  prepared  some  time  beforehand  by  operating  on 
its  roots.  The  growth  of  trees  should  be  checked  skill- 
fully by  a  system  of  root-j)runing.  The  customary  way  of 
doing  this  is  to  dig  a  trench  around  the  tree,  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  stem  as  may  appear  desirable  or  neces- 
sary to  secure  a  requisite  breadth  of  roots  all  around  to 
support  the  tree  when  it  is  finally  transplanted.  The 
trench  is  dug  deeply  enough  to  get  tj  the  nethermost 
roots.  Usually  all  the  roots  are  cut  away,  and  the  trench 
is  again  filled  in  with  good  rich  soil.  This  is  commonly 
done  twelve  months  before  the  transplanting  is  to  take 
place,  and  the  objects  are  to  administer  a  check  to  the 
tree  and  induce  a  free  production  of  fibrous  roots. 

ISTo  doubt  these  objects  are,  in  the  main,  successfully  at- 
tained in  most  cases,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to  minimise 
the  chances  of  success  when  the  final  operation  of  removal 
is  performed  twelve  months  hence.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  find  the  entire  circle  of  soft  fibrous  roots  that 
may  have  been  formed  during  the  intervening  growing 
season  fall  away  when  the  trench  is  again  opened  for  the 
purpose  of  removal.  If  this  occurs,  and  it  is  hardly  pos- 
possible  to  prevent  it  more  or  less,  the  tree  is  then  more 
seriously  crippled  than  it  svould  have  been  had  it  been 
lifted  at  the  time  of  preparation.  A  much  better  method 
is  to  open  a  trench  twelve  months  beforehand,  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  trunk,  to  such  a  depth  as  will 
reach  the  lowest  roots,  and  w^ork  gradually  in  towards 
the  center  in  a  regular  way  all  I'ound,  laying  bare  every 
root,  preserving  the  smaller  and  fibrous  roots,  and  cut- 
ting away  the  stronger  ones  until  within  a  foot  or  two  of 
the  stem,  Avhcn  the  trench  should  be  filled  in,  laying  the 
preserved  roots  out  carefully,  and  covering  them  with 
good  fresh  soil.     When  treated  in  this  way,    a  greater 


TRANSPLANTIKG    LARGE   TREES.  103 

proportion  of  the  fibrous  roots  can  be  preserved  at  the 
final  lifting.  These  fibrous  roots  are  those  on  which 
ultimate  success  depends,  and  every  means  should  be 
taken  to  preserve  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  The  tree 
may  require  to  be  stayed  or  supported  during  the  time 
intervening  between  the  period  of  preparing  and  that  of 
removal.  If  the  top  is  a  heavy  one,  ;ind  the  position 
exposed,  it  should  certainly  be  secured  against  disturb- 
ance. 

The  removal  must  be  done  with  great  care.  It  is  the 
critical  and  anxious  part  of  the  work.  The  seasonable 
time  must  be  re_ulated  by  the  character  of  the  tree.  If 
it  is  deciduous,  very  early  spring  is  preferable  to  late  in 
our  climate.  In  warmer  climates,  however,  early  autumn 
it  the  best  lime  for  the  removal,  when  the  fall  of  the 
leives  has  not  yet  taken  plice.  The  (ree  will,  owing  to 
the  disturbance  in  the  preparation  of  the  preceding  year, 
have  made  no  luxuriant  growth,  and  such  growth  as  it 
may  have  made  will  ripen  early;  there  is,  therefore,  no 
danger  in  an  early  removal,  and  every  other  consideration 
is  in  favor  of  it.  If  the  tree  is  Evergreen,  the  operation  of 
final  removal  should  not  be  performed  till  late  spring. 
Immediately  after  the  first  symptoms  of  returning  ac- 
tivity are  observed,  is  the  proper  time  for  the  removal  of 
Evergreen  trees  of  all  kinds. 

The  work  of  removal  involves  the  consideration  of  the 
apparatus  required,  and  this  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
tree  to  be  operated  upon,  and  the  distance  it  has  to  be 
carried  to  its  new  position.  There  are  various  machines 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  removing  very  large  trees, 
but  they  are  costly  concerns,  which  are  not  needed  in  the 
every  day  routine  of  the  forester's  work.  For  trees  of  or- 
diiuiry  size  there  exists  no  necessity  for  anything  so  costly 
or  cumbrous  as  any  of  these  machines.  A  cart  or  wagon 
of  any  sort  will  do  the  work  of  transporting  the  tree 
quite  well,  provided  care  is  taken  to  prevent  all  avoidable 


104  FOREST    PLAXTIXG. 

injury  either  to  the  stem  or  the  roots  in  loading  or  un- 
loading it. 

The  most  important  point  is  the  lifting  of  the  tree  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  minimise  injury  to  the  roots.  The 
operation  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  way  as  that  of 
preparing,  already  described.  Begin  by  opening  a  trench 
at  the  same  point  as  was  opened  for  preparing,  and  work 
in  a  circle  round  the  tree.  After  tlie  trench  is  opened 
use  forks  only  and  use  them  with  great  caution 
among  the  roots  to  prevent  their  destruction.  Clear 
away  the  earth  loosened  by  the  fork  with  spade  or  shovel, 
so  as  to  keep  the  trench  clear,  and  prevent  the  roots 
being  covered  or  entangled  with  it  till  a  solid  ball  is 
reached  a  little  way  from  the  stem  all  round.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  keep  th;s  ball  of  earth  and  roots  intact,  and  at 
this  point  the  fibrous  roots  liberated  from  the  soil  in  ex- 
cavating should  be  tied  up  in  bundles  and  laid  conven- 
iently over  the  ball.  What  remains  to  be  done,  m  order 
to  liberate  the  tree,  is  to  excavate  under  the  ball  all  round, 
so  that  It  may  be  drawn  by  ropes  attached  to  its  top  to 
one  side  or  the  other.  The  ball  is  then  to  be  bound 
firmly  up  in  mats,  secured  in  such  a  way  as  that  it  may 
be  safely  transported  any  reasonable  distance  without 
breaking  to  pieces. 

When  taken  to  its  new  joosition,  the  pit  in  Avhich  it  is 
to  be  planted  should  be  examined  to  ascertain  that  it  is 
quite  large  enough  to  allow  of  the  roots  being  spread 
out  straight.  There  should  be  no  doubling  of  them  back 
to  accomodate  them.  Badly  injured  portions  should  be 
cut  away  with  a  sharp  knife,  as  they  are  spread  out,  and 
the  finest  of  the  soil  sprinkled  over  them.  Let  there  be 
no  treading  in  of  the  soil,  but  use  water  copiously  in- 
stead. Water  will  fill  in  all  hollows  and  cavities  in  the 
soil  in  a  more  perfect  manner  than  treading,  and  also 
leave  the  soil  in  a  thoroughly  genial  condition  for 
the  roots.     A  mulch   of  straw,   litter  or  leaves  placed 


TKAXSPLANTING    LARGE   TREES.  105 

over  the  area  occiiiiied  by  the  roots,  a  day  or  two  after 
planting  is  finished,  will  be  beneficial.  The  tree  must 
be  carefully  secured  against  disturbance  by  wind.  The 
most  effectual  way  to  do  so  is  by  strands  of  rope  stretched 
from  the  top  to  j^egs  in  the  ground. 

In  conclusion  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  some  direc- 
tions for  transplanting  large  trees,  which  were  given  in  a 
pamphlet  published  by  the  Department  of  the  Interior  in 
1885  for  the  celebration  of  Arbor  Day.  There  it  reads 
as  follows  : 

At  the  outset  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
tree  is  a  living  body,  and  that  the  process  of  removal  in- 
terferes with  its  functions,  and  when  it  is  displaced  from 
the  ground,  causing  an  arrest  of  the  circulation  that  is 
constantly  going  on  between  the  tree  and  the  soil,  a  severe 
shock  is  sustained.  Every  root-fiber  and  its  spongiole 
destroyed  lessens  by  so  much  the  chances  of  success,  and 
■when  a  greater  portion  of  these  are  gone,  the  tree  is  forced 
to  depend  on  its  own  vitality  to  supply  a  new  set  of  root- 
lets before  growth  can  take  place. 

In  the  beginning  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  important  not 
to  injure  the  roots  and  to  preserve  as  many  as  possible, 
particularly  the  small  ones,  for  these  are  what  must  be  de- 
pended on  to  start  the  growth  in  the  new  life.  Where 
trees  are  dug  up  to  be  removed  a  short  distance,  preserve 
all  the  roots  if  possible. 

When  the  tree  is  out  of  the  ground,  exposure  to  the 
sun  or  drying  winds  will  cause  evaporation,  which  is  very 
detrimentiil  to  the  tree,  and  is  a  common  cause  of  failure, 
and  one  which  is  often  overlooked.  If,  however,  the  tree 
has  become  shriveled  and  dried,  vitality  may  often  be 
restored  by  burying  the  whole  for  a  few  days  in  moist 
soil  ;  bul;  it  is  far  better  not  to  have  them  get  in  condi- 
tion to  need  any  such  remedy,  which  at  best  cannot  restore 
the  tree  to  its  original  condition. 

In  excavating  holes  for  planting,  it  is  necessary  to  dig 


106  FOREST   PLANTING 

very  deep,  unless  for  a  tree  with  a,  tap-root  ;  it  may  even 
be  hurtful  in  a  hard  soil  by  affording  a  place  to  hold  water 
under  a  tree  to  its  injury.  The  roots  of  young  trees  grow 
near  the  surface,  and  the  lioles  should  be  large  enough 
to  allow  the  roots  to  be  extended  their  full  length  with- 
out cramping  or  bending. 

In  case  it  is  very  dry  at  the  time  of  planting,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  puddle  (see  page  9?)  the  soil  around  the  roots, 
always  covering  with  dry  earth.  In  this  way  moisture 
will  be  retained  for  a  long  time.  Avoid  too  deep  plant- 
ing. The  roots  must  not  be  placed  beyond  the  action  of 
the  air  ;  about  the  depth  they  were  in  before  removed,  or 
a  very  little  deeper.  (We  would  say  "  higher,"  instead 
of  deeper.  See  the  remarks  on  page  100,  sub.  3.)  When 
filling,  press  the  earth  from  the  first  firmly,  so  as  to  leave  no 
spaces,  and  have  it  compact  about  the  roots.  This  latter 
point  cannot  be  too  thoroughly  attended  to,  and,  of  course, 
to  do  this  well,  the  soil  must  be  finely  pulverized  and  no 
lumps  be  allowed  in  the  filling.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
use  the  hand  to  place  the  soil  in  spaces  where  the  spade 
cannot  go. 

The  time  of  setting  is  best  when  the  .'oil  has  settled  in 
the  Spring  and  become  warm,  so  that  trees  not  being  re- 
moved begin  to  start.  Earlier  than  this  is  not  so  well, 
for  the  sooner  the  tree  begins  to  grow  after  being  set,  the 
more  likely  to  do  Avell.  We  believe  the  proper  time  is 
the  Spring,  the  best  time  for  planting  all  kinds  of  trees, 
although  early  Fall  planting  is  often  recommended. 
Evergreens  often  succeed  well  planted  in  August ;  still 
we  would  rather  risk  them  in  the  Spring,  just  as  they  are 
ready  to  grow.  Evergreens  are  the  most  sensitive  of  any 
to  drying  while  being  removed,  and  if  once  allowed  to 
become  dry  it  is  all-day  with  them  ;  no  amount  of  pains 
or  trouble  can  restore  the  lost  vitality.  For  this  reason 
they  can  be  removed  but  short  distances,  unless  very  care- 
fully packed. 


transplaktinTt  large  trees.  107 

As  more  or  less  of  the  roots  are  removed  or  injured,  it 
is  necessary  to  j^rune  the  top  when  transplanted.  This 
has  generally  been  done  by  cutting  all  the  branches  back  ; 
hut  a  better  way  is  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  branches, 
leaving  those  strong  ones  that  are  in  position  to  give  the 
tree  a  well-shaped  top.  If  all  the  branches  are  left,  and 
the  proportion  between  the  tops  and  roots  balanced  by 
cutting  all  back,  in  after-groAvth  some  of  these  branches 
will  require  to  be  removed — an  injury,  perhaps,  to  the 
tree.  This  certainly  will  apply  to  fruit  trees.  Sometimes 
trees  for  ornament  or  shade  require  to  be  cut  back  to 
make  a  thicker  top  or  one  more  symmetrical. 

Large  trees  are  removed  in  Winter  with  a  large  ball  of 
earth  attached  to  the  root,  and,  though  a  heavy  job,  it 
is  the  only*  successful  method  of  doing  it.  A  trenchcan 
be  dug  at  the  proper  distance  around  the  tree,  and  filled 
with  coarse  litter  previous  to  freezing,  and  also  the  holes 
to  receive  the  trees,  which  will  much  facilitate  the  labor. 

Small  trees  do  better  than  large  ones,  and  it  is  better 
to  be  to  the  trouble  of  taking  care  of  them  one  or  two 
years  longer  than  to  have  them  grow  too  long  in  the 
nursery  row.  Trees  grown  on  good  soil  are  better  than 
from  i^oor  soil.  They  have  more  and  better  roots,  and 
are  in  better  condition  to  grow  in  their  new  location. 
Of  course,  it  is  not  desirable  that  the  soil  where  they 
have  grown  should  be  so  rich  as  to  produce  such  a  growth 
that  the  wood  will  not  properly  ripen,  but  suflBcient  to 
make  a  strong,  healthy  tree.  A  tree  in  poor  soil  has 
weak,  spindling,  feeble  branches,  and,  like  a  starved  an- 
imal, takes  a  long  time  to  recover,  even  when  placed  iu 
better  soil  with  better  feeding. 

After  large  trees  are  properly  transplanted,  they  should 
be  staked,  to  prevent  swajing  around  by  the  wind. 
When   the   ground    is   soft,   the    movement   of  the  top 


*  Tills  is  a  little  too  much  claimed. 


108  FOREST  PLANTING. 

creates  a  displacement  of  the  roots  before  they  have 
taken  any  hold  in  the  soil,  resulting  in  injury  or  death 
to  the  tree.  Mulching  must  not  be  dispensed  with.  Its 
object  is  to  keep  the  soil  moist  until  the  roots  obtain  a 
strong  hold.  This  may  be  overdone.  Mulch  for  shade 
only.  A  large  mass  of  decaying  matter  is  more  hurtful 
than  beneficial.  We  can  not  avoid  all  risks  in  trans- 
planting ;  but  if  these  conditions,  which  we  repeat,  are 
followed,  the  risk  will  be  very  much  lessened  :  (1)  Care- 
ful removal  ;  (2)  protection  from  drying  while  out  of 
the  ground  ;  (3)  setting  in  warm,  well-pulverized  soil  ; 
(4)  hard  tramping*  the  soil  about  the  roots  ;  (5)  judi- 
cious pruning  ;  (6)  stalking  ;  and  (7)  mulching. 

All  this  requires  care  and  labor  ;  but  it  will  make  the 
difference  between  a  thrifty  tree,  and  a  stunted,  un- 
healthy specimen. 


*  We  would  not  advise  hard  tramping,  but  rattier  gently  pressing 
down — not  too  firmly— to  the  level  of  the  surrounding  surface.  At  all 
events,  heaping  the  soil  around  the  tree  should  be  avoided. 


THE  CARE  OF   YOUifG   PLANTATIONS.  109 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   CARE   OF   TOUKG    PLANTATIONS. 

1.  Protection  afforded  hy  the  older  trees  to  young  and 
growing  ones  : 

Young  forest-trees  are  very  susceptible  to  many  ex- 
ternal influences.,  as,  for  instance:  frost,  aridity,  extreme 
sunshine,  excessive  growth  of  grasses  and  vreeds,  etc. 
In  the  natural  reijroduction  of  forests  we  are  able  to  pro- 
tect the  saplings  and  seedlings  during  the  trying  years 
of  their  first  growth  by  retaining  a  proportionate  number 
of  the  larger  trees,  which,  in  due  time,  and  with  the 
growing  up  of  the  young  trees,  are  gradually  cut  down, 
till,  at  last,  nothing  but  the  yonngcr  trees  remain. 

AVe  may  also  employ  the  same  means  in  the  artificial 
reproduction  of  forests,  either  by  growing  first  a  hardy 
kind  of  trees,  under  the  protection  of  which,  at  the 
time  of  the  first  thinning,  ten  or  fifteen  years  later,  the 
more  tender  species,  intended  for  the  future  stock  of 
trees,  may  be  planted ;  or,  by  sowing  or  planting  both 
kinds  of  trees  together,  selecting  for  the  protecting  trees 
those  varieties  that  are  fast  growers,  thus  enabling  them 
to  afford  shelter  to  the  more  slowly  growing  tender  ones. 

Upon  denuded  woodlands,  especially  upon  such  as  are 
surrounded  by  natural  forests,  hardier  and  quick  grow- 
ing trees,  as,  for  instance,  poplars,  birches,  willows  and 
even  pines  very  often  spring  up  by  themselves.  In  such 
cases,  we  have  only  to  plant  the  better  and  more  tender 
kinds  mixed  with  tlie  hardier  saplings,  and  we  may  ex- 
pect an  undisturbed,  continuous  growth  of  the  tender 
trees  under  the  shelter  of  the  hardier  ones. 

Even  buslies  and  shrubs  may  be  made  to  serve  as 
nurses  for  young  trees.  They  have  the  advantage  of 
being  the  cheapest  means  for  reaching  the  purpose  aimed 


110  FOREST   PLANTING. 

at.  But  no  return  of  wood  material  is  realized  when 
they  have  to  be  removed  later  on,  while  timber  obtained 
from  the  hardier  jH-otecting  forest-trees  pays  at  least  the 
expense  of  cutting,  and,  sometimes,  even  the  cost  of 
planting. 

For  nurses  to  the  young,  s^hade-enduring  trees,  snch 
kind  of  trees  are  usually  selected  as  cause  only  a  light 
shade.  So,  for  instance,  the  principal  species  of  the  firs, 
as  Aiies  pedinata,  A.  ncMlis,  and,  upon  good  soil,  the 
spruce  may  be  advantageously  grown  in  the  shade  of  the 
common  pi  e  or  birch  ;  the  beech,  which  is  quite  as  diffi- 
cult to  grow  as  Abies  pectinata  or  picea,  can  be  grown  in 
the  shade  of  the  poplar,  willow,  alder,  etc.  If  the  nurses 
are  properly  selected  they  will  grow  quickly  without 
preventing  the  development  of  the  future  stock  of 
trees,  but  their  own  value  increases  witli  the  length  of 
time  they  remain.  These  nurses,  belonging  mostly  to 
the  light-needing  varieties,  afford  still  another  advantage 
to  the  protected  trees,  as  they  have  the  tendency  to 
crowd  out  such  trees  of  their  own  kind  as  grosv  up 
too  thickly,  and  to  drop  off,  for  want  of  light  and  air, 
their  own  lower  branches,  furnishing  thus  to  the  pro- 
tected shade-enduring  trees  every  condition  to  mature 
and  attain  a  sound  development. 
3.  Gleaning  and  TJiinning. 

We  are  able  to  obtain  great  advantages  both  in  natural 
and  artificial  plantations  by  applying  a  proper  system  of 
cleaning  and  thinning. 

Cleaning. — As  soon  as  the  nurses  threaten  to  over- 
whelm with  too  much  shade  the  protected  young 
trees,  of  Avhich  we  have  been  speaking,  they  have  to  be 
cut  down  so  far  as  to  prevent  them  from  interfering 
with  tlie  luxuriant  growth  of  the  future  and  predomi- 
nant stock  of  trees. 

In  the  natural  reproduction  of  forests,  the  quick  grow- 
ing sprouts  from  stumps  become  often  very  troublesome. 


THE   CAKE   OF   YOUNG    PLANTATIONS.  Ill 

because  they  are  apt  to  subdue  valuable,  young  trees  that 
have  grown  up  from  seeds,  and  which  are  mostly  slow 
growers.  In  such  case,  the  si3routs  of  each  stock  should  be 
very  much  reduced  in  numbers,  and  only  a  few  strong  ones 
should  be  left.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  latter  will  again 
increase  and  begin  to  do  harm  to  the  neighboring  self-sown 
seedlings  of  the  more  valuable  kind.  Then  the  sprouts 
are  still  reduced,  and  but  one  for  each  stock  is  kept  over. 
This  will  be  removed  wiien  the  saplings  have  reached 
such  a  size  that  they  will  not  be  in  any  danger  from 
subsequent  sprouts  of  the  felled  tree. 

Tliinning. — It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  in  natural 
forests  sometimos  over  one  hundred  thousand  young  trees 
can  be  found  growing  upon  an  area  of  one  acre;  and  yet  we 
cannot  expect  to  raise  more  than  from  one  to  two  hun- 
dred full  grown  trees  upon  that  space.  Left  to  itself, 
the  natural  forest  will  eliminate  in  the  course  of  their 
growth  all  those  trees  that  cannot  stand  the  struggle  for 
existence;  and,  finally,  there  will  be  only  some  giants 
found  upon  each  acre  of  woodland.  Tins  constant 
natural  thinning-out  is  more  prevalent  during  the 
earlier  years  of  tree-growth  than  in  their  advanced  age, 
while  the  remaining  trees  increase  in  strength  and 
vitality.  Then  there  commences  a  struggle  which  soon 
assumes  such  proportions  as  to  involve  danger  to  most  of 
the  survivors.  Here  the  skilful  hand  of  the  forester  is 
required  to  terminate  the  contest,  especially  when  the 
trees  are  of  the  same  age  and  equally  developed.  True, 
in  such  case,  although  a  tree  cannot  expand  laterally,  it 
can  attain  a  good  height.  However,  this  being  a  forced 
growth,  the  individuals  become  extremely  weak  and  suc- 
cumb in  a  body  to  sucli  forces  as  high  winds,  great  snow 
drifts,  etc.,  or  their  accretions  become  from  year  to  year 
smaller  till  the  whole  body  falls  a  prey  to  insects  or 
blight. 

In  a  natural  forest,  where  trees  of  different  kinds  and 


112  rOKEST  PLANTIN"G. 

ages  grow  up  together,  the  conditions  for  natural  thin- 
ning out  are  more  favorable.  Here,  nature  itself  does 
the  princij)al  work  of  timely  thinning  out,  and  the 
elementary  forces  do— as  is  generally  known — less  dam- 
age in  forests  Avhere  conifers  are  intermixed  with 
foliaged  trees,  than  in  forests  of  pure  stock.  And  still 
the  helping  liand  of  the  forester  can  do  a  great  deal  to 
produce  a  quicker  development  of  the  trees  and  to  in- 
crease their  strength  and  growth. 

It  is  an  old  rule  in  forestry  to  commence  thinning  ear/y, 
and  repeat  it  often,  but  always  to  do  the  work  moderately. 
But  after  the  lapse  of  from  GO  to  70  years,  when  the 
trees  have  attained  their  full  height,  it  is  expedient  to 
open  out  the  stock  itself  more  freely,  in  order  to  give  the 
trees  a  chance  to  extend  their  remaining  branches,  and 
thus  enable  them  to  accelerate  their  accretion  of  wood. 
The  branches  of  trees  in  forests  under  sixty  years  of  age 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  pretty  close  together — so 
densely  as  not  to  show  any  gaps.  Such  forests  will 
produce  the  best  timber,  as  the  trees  then  will  develop 
branches  only  on  the  higher  part  of  the  trunk,  leaving 
the  lower  part  free,  and  yet  keeping  the  soil  well  shaded. 

Absolute  rules  as  to  the  exact  time  for  the  periodical 
thinnings  cannot  be  given,  except  that  the  soil  should 
always  be  protected  from  light,  sun  and  wind,  and  that 
the  vigorous  growth  of  those  trees  which  are  intended  for 
future  stock,  should  never  be  interfered  with  by  theii" 
companions.  Which  trees  should  be  selected  in  thin- 
ning out  a  forest,  can  best  be  shown  in  forests  with  a 
pure  stock  of  trees,  L  e.,  with  trees  of  the  same  kind 
and  mostly  of  the  same  age.  Here  you  find  three  dif- 
ferent classes  of  trees,  viz. : 

(1)  TJie  dominant,  which  have  grown  ahead  of  the 
others. 

(2)  The  governed,  which,  although  lifting  their  crowns 
in  the  sunshine,  are  narrowed  in  by  the  other  trees. 


THE   CARE   OF  YOUNG   PLANTATIONS.  113 

(3)  The  subdued,  which  are  overgrown  by  both  the 
preceding  classes. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  hitter  class  should  be  taken 
out  entirely,  while  the  first  should  remain  intact,  except- 
ing those  trees  which  are  infested  with  dangerous  insects, 
or  have  incurable  defects  in  the  bark  and  trunk.  In 
such  cases,  even  dominant  but  faulty  trees  should  be 
removed  in  time,  to  avoid  spreading  of  evil,  and  to  give 
the  confined  trees  in  their  neighborhood  the  possibility 
of  extending  laterally  and  attaining  a  larger  growth. 

As  to  class  2,  it  makes  a  difference  as  to  what  kind  of 
trees  are  growing  in  the  forest.  The  light-needing 
species  require  a  more  open  position,  and,  therefore,  a 
stronger  thinning;  while  the  shade-enduring  thrive  even 
when  they  are  so  closely  grown  that  sunlight  cannot  fall 
upon  the  lower  branches  of  the  trunk,  aud,  therefore, 
require  but  a  moderate  thinning. 

The  locatio7i  has  great  influence  upon  the  extent  to 
which  the  thinning  out  is  to  be  carried.  Upon  good, 
fertile  soil  the  gaps  and  openings  made  by  a  more  ex- 
tensive thinning  will  fill  up  soon,  even  if  there  be  a 
northern  or  northwestern  exposure.  But  on  poor  soil, 
even  a  small  interruption  of  the  density  of  the  tree- 
growth  is  apt  to  cause  drying  up  of  the  soil,  spring- 
ing up  of  weeds,  blowing  away  of  the  leaves  on  the 
ground — all  these  being  conditions  detrimental  to  tree- 
growth,  and  which  should  be  strictly  avoided.  For  this 
reason  the  wood-material  obtained  by  thinning  out 
forests  upon  poor  soil,  and,  which  usually  is  removed 
at  once,  is  often  not  taken  away,  but  is  left  on  the  spot 
to  fall  a  prey  to  the  destroying  effect  of  the  elements, 
thus  enriching  the  soil  by  the  decay  of  twigs  and  leaves. 

As  to  what  age  the  trees  should  attain  before  the 
forest  is  thinned  out,  we  must  remember  that  the 
younger  trees  have  a  tendency  to  grow  upward  rather 
than  to  extend  laterally.     They,  therefore,  can  stand  a 


114  FOKEST  PLANTING. 

much  greater  density  than  older  ones,  and  do  not  need 
to  be  so  carefully  thinned  out  as  the  older  ones.  At 
all  events  the  margin  of  woods  should  be  left  thicker,  not 
only  in  lespect  to  tree-growth,  but  also  in  regard  to  the 
undergrowth,  formed  by  shrubs  and  brushes,  which 
have  sprung  up  there.  For  only  in  this  natural  w;iy 
can  the  noxious  influences  of  the  sun,  light,  and  drying 
winds  upon  the  forest-growth  at  the  margins  of  the  woods 
be  obviated.  The  same  rule  holds  good  if  there  are  open- 
ings in  the  interior  of  woods  on  account  of  the  inter- 
ruption of  the  density  of  the  trees  in  those  places.  The 
point  never  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  management  of  forests 
is,  to  keep  the  soil  fully  shaded,  especially  when  it  is 
poor  and  dry. 

In  woods  of  mixed  growth,  such  as  occur  in  natur- 
ally grown  forests,  tliinning  is  done  on  different  princi- 
ples. There  the  light-needing  trees  grow  ahead  of  the 
shade-enduring  ones,  and  seemingly  subdue  them. 
Nevertheless,  the  latter  must  not  be  removed,  as  they 
form  the  most  important  part  of  the  forest,  and  thrive 
even  in  the  shade  of  the  light-needing  trees.  In  thin- 
ning such  forests  we  have  to  consider  both  classes  of 
trees  separately,  and  by  looking  at  the  overgrown  tree.<, 
we  have  io  remove  of  this  class  (light  needing),  those 
which  prevent  the  full  development  of  their  companions  ; 
while  looking  at  the  undergrowth  we  have  to  remove  of 
the  shade-enduring  class,  such  as  are  subdued  or  are  likely 
to  be  subdued  by  trees  of  their  own  class.  However,  to 
proceed  here  correctly  is  not  an  easy  task,  and  should 
never  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  ordinary  workingmen. 

Old  trees  growing  among  young  stock  should  not  be 
felled  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  gradually  removed  by 
first  separating  the  branches  so  as  not  to  injure  the  young 
trees  surrounding  them;  and  then  the  trunk  after  being 
felled,  should  be  cut  up  and  carried  piece  by  piece,  with 
the  least  damage  possible  to  the  after-growing  trees. 


THE   CARE   OF    YOUSTG    PLANTATIONS.  115 

3.  Removal  of  large  brandies. 

The  removiil  of  the  large  branches  of  trees,  which  liave 
been  retained  and  left  to  increase  in  growth,  is  seldom 
needed  in  the  management  of  forests,  as  in  properly 
kept  forests  the  density  of  the  trees  forces  them  to  follow 
the  light  and  sun,  and  grow  up  in  height,  thereby  keep- 
ing back  the  branches,  which,  by  the  increasing  shade 
from  the  tops  of  the  young  trees,  gradually  drop 
off.  In  this  way  the  trunks  of  trees  in  the  high  forests 
become  clear  of  knots  and  attain  the  form  so  valuable  in 
lumber  and  timber.  Wherever  large  branches  appear  on 
forest  trees  a  defective  position  of  the  trunks  has  been 
the  cause.  To  remove  such  branches  will  seldom  be 
worth  while,  except  in  very  valuable  trunks  the  value 
of  which  may  sometimes  be  increased  by  the  removal;  and 
when  room  is  wanted  to  enable  young  trees,  growing  in 
the  shade  of  larger  ones,  to  increase  in  growth.  The  re- 
moval of  such  branches  becomes  necessary  when  in  so- 
called  middle  forests  trees  are  left  overgrown  to  attain  a 
greater  height.  In  such  a  forest  each  of  these  large 
trees  grows  up  more  or  less  separated,  pushes  out  its 
branches  laterally,  and  when  not  jiroperly  attended  to, 
forms  less  [useful]  wood  in  trunk  and  stem,  and  more 
in  the  useless  branches.  Moreover,  these  branches  have 
a  damaging  effect  upon  the  sprouts  of  the  cut  stock 
growing  under  them  by  shadowing  and  preventing  their 
vigorous  growth;  and  for  this  reason  they  frequently  have 
to  be  removed. 

In  removing  a  large  branch  from  a  tree,  we  must  first 
endeavor  to  minimize  as  much  as  possible  the  extent  of 
the  wound  ;  especially  we  must  avoid  causing  a  split  in 
the  bark  remaining  on  the  tree.  In  order  to  attain  this 
we  should  not  cut  the  branch  in  one  cut,  but  make  first 
an  incision  underneath,  about  twelve  inches  beyond  the 
place  where  the  branch  is  to  be  cut  off,  then  saw  entirely 
through  the  branch  about  one  inch  further  outward,  and 


116 


FOREST   PLANTING. 


thus  the  largest  purt  of  it  is  removed.  Thereupon  re- 
move the  remaining  stump  by  sawing  at  a  right  angle 
where  it  joins  the  tree,  but  never  in  a  line  running 
parallel  with  the  standing  tree.     [See  illustration.] 

If  there  be  more  than  one  branch  to  be  removed  from 
a  tree,  commence  with  the  highest  branches,  at  the  same 
time  taking  off  the  dry  ones.  If  the  trunk  retains  its 
branches  for  one  third  part  of  its  entire  height  it  is  suf- 
ficient for  its  vigorous  growth. 


A,  first  incision ;  B,  first  cut;  CD,  secoiul  cnt,  cor- 
rectly executed;    C  E,  i?icorrectly  made  cut. 

The  most  favorable  time  for  removing  large  branches 
is  late  in  the  fall  and  in  the  first  part  of  the  winter,  be- 
cause the  healing  of  the  wound  will  be  completed  when 
tlie  sap  begins  to  run.  The  sap  is  then  prevented  from 
running  out  of  the  cut  and  causing  it  to  rot.  No  paint- 
ing with  tar,  oil,  jjaint,  or  the  like,  is  required. 
4.    Undergrowth  as  a  protection  to  the  forest-soil. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  favorable  condition  of 
a  forest  is  only  practicable  when  the  soil  is  constantly 
protected  against  the  drying  influences  of  sun,  light  and 
wind.     For    this    reason    the  skillful    forester    always 


THR  CARE  OF   YOUNG   PLANTATIONS.  117 

endeavors  to  keep  the  soil  in  forests  of  foliagetl  trees 
covered  with  tree-leaves,  and  in  coniferous  forests 
covered  with  needles.  The  growth  of  grasses,  moss, 
heaths,  bushes,  etc.,  should  be  stopped  wherever  they 
appear  in  forests,  and  jDrecautions  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  their  return.  Such  yegetation  appears  in  the 
openings  of  imperfect  and  neglected  forests,  and  in 
those  woods  that  consist  of  light-needing  trees,  when  the 
foliage  ot  the  trees  becomes  too  tliin  to  overshadow  the 
soil.  Up  to  within  a  short  time  it  was  customary  to  plant 
these  openings  and  gaps  with  sliade-enduring  trees,  viz., 
foliaged  forests  with  oaks,  beeches,  maples  and  horn- 
beams; and  light-needing  coniferous  forests  of  pines  and 
larches  with  sjiruces  and  firs,  by  which  measure  the 
grasses,  weeds,  etc.,  would  be  killed  off,  while  the  newly 
planted  trees  under  the  shade  of  the  old  stock  would 
grow  luxuriantly,  thereby  increasing  the  wood  produc- 
tion of  the  forest.  All  this  sounds  very  plausible,  but 
experiments  made  in  Germany  at  different  experimental 
stations  during  several  decades  show  that  trees  planted 
for  the  protection  of  the  denuded  soil  use  up  most  of  the 
plant-food  in  the  suiface  soil,  and  thereby  damage  or  at 
least  keep  back  t  he  growth  of  the  old  stock  of  trees.  It 
may  be  that  this  observation  will  not  coincide  with 
similar  experiments  yet  to  be  made  in  this  country,  be- 
cause our  natural  forests  contain  much  more  plant-food 
than  the  artificial  forests  in  the  old  world  ;  but,  even  in 
Germany,  intelligent  foresters  insist  upon  preserving 
whatever  is  produced  in  the  Avoods  that  will  cover  the  soil 
and  retain  its  humidity,  thus  preventing  undue  exhaus- 
tion by  surface  evaporation. 


]18  FOREST   PLANTING. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 


PROTECTION   OP    FORESTS   AGAINST   ANIMALS    AND 
ELEMENTARY'  FORCES. 

The  doctrine  of  the  protection  of  forests  includes  all 
subjects  and  events  by  which  forests  and  forest-products 
may  be  imperilled,  and  the  measures  to  be  taken  in  order 
to  obviate  and  lessen  the  severity  of  such  evils.  These 
protective  measures  are  directed  either  against  animals, 
or  elementary  forces. 

I.— THE    RELATION    OF  THE   ANIMAL   KINGDOM   TO 
FORESTS. 

There  exist  many  animals  which  are  useful  and  pro- 
mote the  well-being  of  forests,  otliers  whose  value  is 
doubtful,  being  at  some  seasons  and  times  beneficial 
and  at  others  injurious — and  still  another  chiss  whose 
presence  is  always  detrimental  to  foresta^  growth.  Ii 
the  second  case — doubtful  animals — the  injury  inflicted 
is  often  overestimated  and  war  waged  against  animals 
which,  although  doing  little  harm,  are  persecuted  be- 
cause their  habits  are  unknown,  and,  therefore,  a  preju- 
dice prevails  against  them. 

A, — The   Useful  Animals. 

Among  the  mammals  we  find  some  carnivorous  animals 
which  feed  principally  on  noxious  insects,  (bugs,  cater- 
pillars, pupas,  butterflies  and  their  e^2gs)  viz. :  bats,  some 
species  of  the  shrew-mouses,  moles,  hedgehogs,  or  porcu- 
pines and  skunks. 

The  burrowing  habit  of  the  mole  is  sometimes  inju- 
rious in  forest-nurseries,  but  in  the  ordinary  forests  it  is 
of  great  advantage,  as  it  loosens  the  ground  and  renders 


PROTECTION"   AGAINST  ANIMALS.  119 

it  more  adapted  for  the  reception  and  retention  of 
humidity  and  fertilizing  matter. 

Martens,  some  species  of  the  weasel,  the  fox,  polecat 
and  badger,  are  veiy  useful  also.  These  animals  feeding 
principally  upon  mice,  and  many  noxious  insects,  should 
be  allowed  to  remain.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to 
spare  the  young  of  these  animals  as  they  live  exclusively 
on  mice  and  insects. 

The  importance  of  birds,  as  valuable  factors  in  forests 
is  very  great.  With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  larger 
ones  as  for  instance  :  the  eagle,  vulture,  falcon,  the 
hawk,  the  horn-owl  and  the  raven,  most  of  them  contrib- 
ute to  the  healthy  growth  of  trees.  The  smaller  birds 
are  always  hunting  the  enemies  of  tree-growth,  and  their 
multiplication  should  be  encouraged  in  every  conceivable 
way.  They,  therefore,  should  not  only  be  spared,  but 
also  protected  against  their  principal  foes,  cats  and  squir- 
rels, during  breeding-time.  The  starlings,  woodpeckers, 
all  kinds  of  thrushes,  black  birds,  whip-poor-wils,  the 
purple  martin,  the  oriole,  the  cedar-bird,  the  cat-bird, 
the  red-eyed  vireo  and  the  like  have  proved  especially 
beneficial  ;  they  feed  not  only  upon  insects,  but  in 
winter,  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  some  of 
them  search  industriously  for  the  eggs  of  the  insects 
buried  in  the  bark  and  twigs  of  the  trees.  No  gunner 
should  shoot  one  of  these  little  animals  of  the  feath- 
ered tribe. 

Singing  birds  live  without  exception  on  insects.  The 
forester  should  devote  to  them  special  care,  and  set  aside 
certain  places  where  there  are  bushes  or  hollow  trees,  as 
these  afford  the  most  desirable  opportunities  for  nest- 
building.  In  case  such  opportunities  are  lacking,  breed- 
ing-boxes should  be  hung  up  in  the  trees  in  order  to 
afford  the  feathered  tribes  the  facilities  to  build  nests 
and  rear  their  young.  It  is  advisable  to  leave  wild  fruit- 
trees  as  crab-apple,  wild  cherry,  plum,  pear  etc.,  which 


120  FOREST   PLANTING. 

usually  are  scattered  over  a  forest  area,  undisturbed,  as 
the  fruit  serves  to  support  useful  animals  during  the  time 
that  insects,  caterpillars  and  eggs  of  insects  cannot  be 
had. 

The  various  kinds  of  lizzards,  most  of  the  snakes,  the 
blind  -worms,  frogs  and  toads  are  also  useful  animals  as 
they  devour  not  only  obnoxious  insects,  but  many  of 
them  attack  also  rats,  mice  and  other  small  rodents. 

But  even  among  the  insects  we  find  many  which  are 
carnivorous,  and  feed  mainly  upon  the  smaller  and 
noxious  kindd  of  their  own  tribe.  To  this  class  belong 
the  following  beetles  : 

(1.)  The  lion  beetles  Calasoma  calidum  and  Calasoma 
scrxdator,  of  which  the  former  hunts  mostly  during  the 
night,  while  the  latter  kills  and  eats  all  soft-bodied  larvae 
during  the  daytime. 

(2.)  The  elongated  ground  beetle,  Pasimaclms  eloriga- 
tus,  preys  also  upon  all  soft-bodied  larvae. 

(3.)  The  Cicindelidm  are  very  appropriately  named 
"Tiger-beetles."  They  live  in  burrows,  and  are  contin- 
Uidly  at  the  top  of  their  burrows  waiting  for  insects 
which  they  catch  and  dr;ig  into  their  holes  where  they 
eat  them  at  leisure. 

(4.)  The  most  widely  known  and  justly  appreciated 
beneficial  beetles  are  the  Lady-birds,  Coccinellidm.  They 
perform  the  work  of  exterminiug  noxious  insects  quietly 
and  silently,  and  devour  countless  numbers  of  their  vic- 
tims in  a  short  time. 

Beetles  are  not  the  only  beneficial  insects  ;  a  still  larger 
number  is  found  among  the  Hymenoptera.  Special 
notice  deserve  : 

(1.)  The  dragon-fly  or  adderbolt-fly  {Lihellula) ,  ants 
and  wasp-flies.  The  latter  two  are  even  in  their  larvae 
state  carnivorous,  and  prey  upon  other  insects,  devouring 
also  their  eggs. 

(2.)  The  white  faced  hornets  are  busy  all  day  long  in 


PROTECTIOK   AGAINST   ANIMALS.  121 

search  of  larvae  and  slugs  Avith  which  they  feed  their 
young. 

(3.)  Other  insects  prove  beneficial  by  depositing  their 
eggs  in  the  pupas  of  injurious  caterpillars  upon  which 
the  young  feed,  when  hatched.  To  this  class  (parasites) 
belong  the  ichneumon-flies  {tenthredo)  which  range  all 
the  way  from  flies  an  inch  in  length  to  so  minute  species 
that  they  scarcely  are  visible  to  tlie  naked  eye.  The 
larger  kinds  deposit  only  one  eg^  in  eacii  victim,  while 
some  of  the  smaller  leave  their  entire  complement  of 
eggs  on  one  caterpillar.  The  eggs  hatch  soon,  and  the 
larvEe  eat  their  way  into  the  worm  where  they  consume 
all  the  substance  that  would  otherwise  go  to  make  the 
future  noxious  moth. 

B. — The  Doubtful  Animals. 

Mistakes  are  often  made  with  regard  to  the  good  or 
bad  offices  of  birds  by  those  who  ought  to  know  which 
are  their  friends  and  which  their  foes.  This  holds  es- 
pecially good  in  reference  to 

The  jay.  It  is  true  that  this  fellow  in  the  spring 
hunts  after  the  eggs  of  the  smaller,  useful  birds,  and 
sucks  the  meat  out  of  them  with  great  relish  ;  but  in  the 
fall  he  industriously  collects  ripe  acorns  and  beechnuts, 
and  buries  them  in  various  places  in  the  ground,  in 
order  to  lay  aside  food  enough  to  supply  his  needs  during 
the  winter.  Fortunately  he  forgets  most  of  the  hiding- 
places,  and  the  result  is  that  the  seeds  sprout  and  pro- 
duce fine  seedlings. 

The  sparrotv,  of  which  lately  much  complaint  has  been 
made,  is  in  many  respects  detrimental  to  field  and  garden 
products,  as  he  feeds  principally  upon  fruit.  But  in  the 
winter  time  he  is  very  useful,  living  then  upon  eggs  of 
the  insects  which  he  picks  from  the  bark  of  the  trees. 
During  the  breeding-time,  in  spring  and  eaily  summer, 
he  destroys  a  great  many  insects  in  order  to  satisfy  the 


122  FOREST   PLAKTING. 

wants  of  his  young  that  will  take  no  other  food  for  the 
first  weeks  of  their  life.  An  excess  of  their  multiplica- 
tion should  be  checked  by  the  gun  or  trap.  Either 
fried  or  boiled,  for  soup  or  stew,  they  make  an  excellent 
meal. 

C. — The  Injurious  Aiiimals. 

Animals  of  prey  such  as  bears,  wolves,  catamounts, 
wild-cats,  etc.,  should  be  unmercifully  persecuted  and 
killed  off  as  they  devour  the  nobler  kinds  of  game  and 
also  animals  useful  in  promoting  the  forest-growth. 

Of  the  mammals,  the  rodents  are  the  most  obnoxious 
animals,  especially  the  heaver — one  of  them  alone  being 
able  to  cut  down  in  one  night  a  tree  measuring  12  inches 
in  diameter.  In  the  State  of  Xew  York  they  are  now 
nearly  exterminated,  but  their  pernicious  work  can  still 
be  seen  on  streams  and  creeks  in  the  Adirondack  region 
on  the  so-called  "beaver  meadows."  The  beavers  built 
their  dams  across  the  streams  causing  long  back  flows  by 
Avhich  the  surrounding  trees  and  bushes  were  water  killed 
or  drowned  in  the  ponds  formed  through  the  dams. 
These  ponds  became,  in  time,  filled  by  the  decaying  wood 
material  and  other  debris  of  the  forests,  a'ld  furnished 
the  aquatic  plants  the  soil  in  which  they  found  not  only 
root,  but  such  rich  plant  food  that  the  whole  pond  soon 
was  overgrown  with  coarse  grasses.  After  the  extinction 
of  the  beaver  the  lumbermen  have  resumed  this  work  of 
destroying  trees  by  water.  For  in  order  to  cheaply 
transport  the  logs  through  the  Adirondacks,  dams  are 
now  built,  causing  back  flows  that  annually  kill  more 
trees  than  ever  have  been  there  destroyed  by  fire. 

3Iice  are  very  obnoxious  to  forest-growth.  They  feed 
upon  tree  seed,  gnaw  off  the  tender  bark  of  young  trees, 
and  bite  entirely  through  small  seedlings  and  saplings. 
Foliaged  trees  are  the  principal  object  of  their  ravages  ; 
but  they  do  not  spare  conifers,  especially  when  the 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   ANIMALS.  123 

forests  are  surrounded  Avith  fields  upon  which  a  rich 
grass-cover  exists.  They  hide  during  the  winter  under 
the  grass  and  direct  from  thence  their  feeding  expeditions 
to  the  neighboring  woods.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to 
cut  late  in  the  fall  the  grass  in  and  around  young  plan- 
tations as  short  as  possible,  thereby  preventing  the  mice 
from  making  their  headquarters  near  the  young  trees. 
But  if  the  damage  is  done,  the  girdled  trees  should  be 
cut  early  in  spring  clean  above  the  ground,  in  order  to 
invite  a  stump  growth.  True,  girdled  trees  will  also 
sprout,  but  as  the  sap  is  un.ible  to  circulate  in  the  trees, 
their  vitality  is  weakened  to  such  a  degree  that  they  die 
off  during  the  next  season.  If  the  mice  increase  so  much 
as  to  become  a  plague  there  is  no  better  means  in  which 
to  fight  them  than  to  foster  their  natural  enemies  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  and  to  often  drive  hogs  and  cattle  into 
the  endangered  groves,  thus  disturbing  them  in  their 
feeding-places.  In  fenced-in  forest  nurseries  mice  may 
be  destroyed  by  putting  poisoned  grains  in  drain  pi])es  ; 
but  to  do  the  same  in  the  forests  is  not  advisable  for  the 
reason  that  useful  animals  would  be  killed  when  feeding 
upon  the  poisoned  mice. 

The  squirrel,  rabbit,  rellmouse  and  some  species  of  the 
dormouse  are  just  as  injurious  as  the  mice  ;  the  first;  one 
besides  gnawing  the  trees,  consumes  the  eggs  and  young 
of  small  birds.  Squirrels  and  rabbits  should,  therefore, 
be  shot  or  trapped.  The  other  named  foes  cannot  be  de- 
stroyed except  by  promoting  the  multiplication  of  their 
natural  persecutors,  as  is  recommended  in  regard  to 
mice. 

Game,  especially  deer,  when  too  numerous,  will  do 
much  harm  to  young  plantations  by  feeding  upon  small 
seedlings,  and  rubbing  their  horns  or  branches  against 
the  taller  ones.  Ashes  and  spruces,  grown  up  to  the 
size  of  hop-poles  are  sought  out  by  deer,  and  their  bark 
is  peeled  off  the  stem  as  far  up  as  the  animals  can  reach. 


124  FOREST   PLANTING. 

In  tills  way  game  can  do  mncli  harm  to  young  planta- 
tions. The  forester  must  know  how  many  heads  of  game 
a  forest  can  support  without  imperilling  the  tree-growth  ; 
he  should  kill  off  the  excess  or  cause  it  to  be  killed  off. 
This  is  one  of  the  many  reasons  why  the  learned  for- 
ester should  have  the  exclusive  care  of  game  in  his 
territory.  To  entrust  the  duty  of  caring  for  the  game  to 
so-called  *'game  keepers"  as  is  done  in  our  State,  is  pre- 
posterous, and  serves  only  to  cause  collisions  between 
officers  who  should  be  subjected  to  the  directions  of  one 
and  the  same  superior,  and  act  harmoniously  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  preservation  of  both  game  and  woods. 

The  most  careful  attention  should  be  given  by  the 
forester  to  the  habits  and  life  history  of  insects  noxious 
to  forest-trees,  because,  without  a  correct  knowledge  of 
those  circumstances,  he  will  not  be  able  to  stop  or  mini- 
mize the  often  enormous  ravages  accomjilished  by  these 
small  animals.  Their  habits  are  very  manifold.  Some 
make  their  appearance  in  February  and  March,  others 
in  summer,  and  still  others  in  the  fall.  Some  go  duiing 
one  year  through  all  four  stations  of  their  development 
(egg,  larva  or  caterpillar,  chrysalis  or  pupa,  butterfly 
beetle),  others  require  several  years  for  their  comjjlete 
evolution,  the  young  of  others  are  hatched  several  times  in 
one  season.  It  is  also  of  interest  to  know  in  which 
state  of  development  the  insects  attack  the  trees.  Com- 
monly the  larvse  do  all  the  harm  by  feeding  upon  leaves 
aid  twigs ;  sometimes  the  fullfledged  insect,  especially 
many  beetles,  perform  this  operation.  To  observe  what 
kind  of  trees  arc  particularly  sought  after  by  one  or  the 
other  species  of  insects  is  also  important.  Some  species 
confine  themselves  to  one  kind  of  trees,  others  attack 
several  kinds  ;  the  most  obnoxious  are  those  which  feed 
upon  both  coniferous  and  foliagcd  trees.  Some  insects 
consume  only  leaves,  others  feed  upon  the  buds;  some 
live  inside  the  tree,  others  between  tree  and  bark  ;  some 


PROTECTTOX   AGAINST   ANIMALS.  125 

are  always  to  be  found  but  not  numerous  ;  others  appear 
seldom,  but  when  they  appear,  they  muster  up  danger- 
ously great  numbers  ;  some  are  slow  in  their  movements 
and  walk  only;  others  fly  and  cover  very  quickly  large 
stretches  of  forests. 

From  this  it  Avill  be  seen  that  a  keen  observation  is 
required  to  be  able  to  employ  at  the  right  time,  and  in 
the  right  place,  the  proper  means  to  moderate  the  damages, 
and  to  prevent  the  further  spreading  of  insect-pests. 
The  most  efficacious  measure  of  obtaining  these  results 
consists  in  sparing  and  even  fostering  the  multiplication 
of  the  natural  enemies  of  the  injurious  insects.  The 
equilibrium  between  useful  and  obnoxious  animals  is 
kept  up  in  the  animal  kingdom  by  the  production  of 
such  animals  as  persecute  the  injurious  ones.  This  law 
is  nowhere  more  obvious  than  with  insects.  There  a 
considerable  number  can  be  looked  upon  by  their  de- 
struction of  obnoxious  insects  as  real  benefactors  to 
mankind. 

It  is  further  recommended  as  a  preventive  means  from 
insect  ravages  the  removal  of  stumps,  dry  trees  and 
branches,  cut  wood  and  timber,  and  the  peeling  off 
the  bark  from  timber  in  case  it  cannot  be  shifted 
from  the  forest,  whereby  the  breeding-places  of  insects 
are  destroyed.  The  most  effective  means  to  sup- 
press the  insect-plague,  especially  in  wild  or  natural 
forests,  is  the  introduction  of  a  systematic  management, 
of  which  the  first  step  would  be  a  correct  and  periodically 
repeated  thinning  by  which  we  in  time  obtain  a  thoroughly 
sound  and  vigorous  growth  of  Irees — and  to  such  trees 
obnoxious  insects  cannot  do  much  harm. 

If  the  just  mentioned  means  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
injurious  insects  are  observed,  it  is  not  difficult  to  get  rid 
of  them  completely.  For  this  purpose  the  bark  of  trees 
invaded  by  insects  should  be  stripped  off  and  burnt, 
the    dead    trees  should   be   cut,    and  unless  removed. 


126  FOREST    PLAXTIXG. 

should  be  burnt  up;  all  stumps,  even  those  of  pines,  should 
bo  barked,  and  the  bark  be  removed  or  burnt  ;  for 
stumps,  especially  those  of  trees,  which  have  been  felled 
during  the  preceding  two  years,  are  a  general  resort  for 
all  kinds  of  destructive  boring  insects,  and  sliould  be 
pulled  up.  But  as  this,  if  done  on  a  large  scale,  is  very 
expensive,  we  reach  the  same  end  by  tearing  off  the 
bark,  the  naked  stump  being  not  frequented  by  obnox- 
ious insects. 

The  forester,  who  has  made  careful  observations  on  the 
habits  of  destructive  forest  insects,  is  further  able  to 
keep  his  district  clean  by  putting  at  proper  places,  so- 
called  "  trap-trees."  Healthy,  living  trees,  especially 
conifers,  are  felled  in  many  spots  of  the  forest  at  the  time 
when  the  obnoxious  insects  commence  flying  around,  and 
left  on  the  ground  without  peeling  the  bark  or  removing 
the  branches.  The  insects  like  to  deposit  their  eggs  in 
these  newly  cut  trees,  and  if  such  trees  are  removed 
or  burnt  up  ere  the  eggs  are  hatched,  all  danger  from 
attacks  of  the  destroyed  generations  will  be  over.  But 
the  forester  must  endeavor  to  obtain  correct  knowledge 
of  the  habits  of  injurious  insects,  because  without  that  it 
would  not  be  possible  for  him  to  determine  the  most 
proper  time  for  removing  and  destroying  the  ''  trap- 
t:ees." 

The  United  Stat-s  Entomological  Commission,  pub- 
lished in  1881  in  its  Bulletin  No.  VII  a  very  interesting 
and  useful  treatise  on  the  insects  injurious  to  forest 
and  shade  trees,  from  which  we  can  see  how  numerous 
and  pernicious  these  insects  are  in  this  country.  Those 
who  want  more  information  upon  this  subject,  than  the 
limited  space  of  this  publication  permits  to  give,  are  re- 
ferred to  said  pamphlet,  the  author  of  winch  is  Dr.  A.S. 
Packhard. 

According  to  the  said  bulletin  oaks  ai'c  attacked  by 
214:  different  species  of  insects  ;  elms  by  43  ;  hickories 


PROTECTION"  AGAIKST  ANIMALS.  127 

by  87  ;  black-walnut  by  11 ;  butternut  by  18  ;  chestnut 
by  18  ;  locust  by  20  ;  maple  by  37  ;  birch  by  19  ;  beech 
by  15  ;  tulip-tree  by  9  ;  pines  by  102  and  spruces  by  24. 

Besides  enumerating  and  describing  those  insects  the 
bulletin  also  contains  an  account  of  the  remedies  to  bo 
applied  in  destroying  them.  But  the  average  forester 
will  seldom  be  able  to  make  use  of  them,  ihey  being  too 
expensive  and  causing  too  much  labor  in  extensive  for- 
ests. If  large  tiacts  in  the  forest  are  taken  hold  of  by 
insects,  we  have  to  decide  which  parts  can  still  be  saved, 
and  then  apply  every  means  to  suppress  the  pest.  But 
if  it  has  spieaJ  to  such  a  degree  that  human  help  can- 
not more  be  of  any  use,  the  afflicted  trees  have  to  be  cut, 
and  if  possible  to  be  disposed  of  as  wood  products,  or, 
if  that  is  not  jii-aciicable,  the  torch  has  to  be  applied  to 
them  with  proper  precaution  against  spreading  of  the 
fire  beyond  the  limits  of  the  infested  tract.  After  the 
fire  has  destroyed  the  insects,  larvae  and  eggs,  the  de- 
nuded area  should  be  leforested  at  once,  in  order  to 
close  the  opening  made  in  the  forest  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  to  prevent  the  elements  from  making  inroads  upon 
the  opened  forest. 

Jn  the  same  proportion  as  the  si3ecies  of  forest-trees  of 
this  countr}-  greatly  outnumber  those  of  Europe  the  in- 
sects detfimental  to  them  are  here  more  numerous  than  in 
Euro[)o.  But  the  damaging  influence  of  the  in-ects  here 
upon  forest-growth  has  not  been  so  generally  injurious 
on  account  of  the  diversity  of  trees  growing  in  our  wild 
or  natural  woods,  where  insects  may  feed  undisturbed 
upon  certain  trees  preferred  by  them  ;  and  for  the  exten- 
sivity  of  our  forests,  where  the  damages  of  the  several 
species  of  insects  may  be  not  so  remarkable  on  the  single 
trees;  both  circumstances  furnishing  at  the  same  time 
very  good  opportunities  fur  creating  in  large  numbers  the 
natural  persecutors  of  obnoxious  insects.  However,  we 
should  not  be  careless  in  this  matter  as  not  only  in  our 


128  FOREST   PLANTING. 

Adirondack  forests,*  but  also  in  other  States,f  serious 
conip'aints  are  being  made  that  valuable  tracts  of  timber 
are  dying  off.  We  must  watch  closely  the  working  of 
these  little  animals,  and  neglect  nothing  that  can  con- 
tribute to  their  suppression.  This  duty  should  be  con- 
sidered by  us  the  more  urgent  as  in  regard  to  the 
eztensivity  of  our  forests  close  observers  have  already 
pointed  out  the  next  future  as  the  time  where  complaints 
of  wood  scarcity  J  might  be  more  justified  than  boasts  of 
superabundance  ;  and  then,  of  course,  the  great  diversity 
of  trees  will  have  gone  also. 

II.— INJURIOUS   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   ELEMENTS   UPON  ,\ 

FOREST-GROWTH. 

i 

A. — Frost. 

Frost  causes  injury  to  forest-trees  in  various  ways  : 
sometimes  the  cold  during  the  winter  is  so  excessive  that 
entire  groves  of  our  hardiest  trees  are  killed.  This  oc- 
curs principally  in  valleys  where  there  are  great  stretches 
of  marshy  or  swampy  land,  and  also  in  adjacent  higher 
land  looking  towards  the  south.     Not  unfrecpiently  the 

*Cfr.  Ann.  Report  St.  Forest  Commission  for  1885,  pp.  52,  59; 
Report  for  1886,  p.  14  ;  Report  for  1888,  p.  27. 

+  A  West  Virginia  paper  lately  had  the  followinnj  item : 
MoRGANTOWN,  West  Va.,  Sept.  14. — During  the  present  Summer 
large  tracts  of  valuable  black  spruce  timber  along  the  valley  of  the 
Cheat  River  have  died,  entailing  a  loss  of  tens  of  thousands  of  dollars 
upon  the  owners  of  the  land.  Botanist  C.  F.  Millspaugh  and  Entomolo- 
gist A.  D.  Hopkins  of  the  State  University  have  undertaken  to  investi- 
gate the  matter,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  point  out  a  remedy.  It  is 
suspected  that  some  insect  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  disease  which  is  at- 
tacking the  trees. 

\  The  Lewiston  (Me.)  Jow-nal  of  April  4,  1890,  contained  as  follows  : 
•'It's  rather  queer— the  fact  that  the  Boston  and  Maine  had  to 
suspend  operations  on  its  Kittery-Portsmouth  bridge  for  a  whole  season 
because  the  company  could  not  find  euitabla  timber  for  its  completion. 
The  depiction  of  our  forest  treasures  is  no  myth. 


IXJURIOUS   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   ELEMENTS.  129 

frost  causes  fissures  to  appear  in  the  bark  and  wood  of 
trees,  by  which  they  are  weakened  to  such  a  degree  that 
they  succumb  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  very  cold. 
During  early  spring,  when  the  running  of  the  sap  in  the 
trees  has  commenced,  and  a  very  cold  spell  follows  after 
some  warm  days,  the  sap  often  freezes,  especially  at  the 
south-side  of  the  trunk  ;  then  the  bark,  covering  the 
frozen  sap,  becomes  loosened,  thereby  exposing  the  under- 
lying wood,  which  in  consequence  goes  to  rot. 

To  prevent  these  casualties  there  is  only  one  means, 
viz. :  the  preservation  of  the  close  density  of  the  forest, 
especially  at  its  margin  where  it  borders  on  an  open 
field  or  a  very  young  plantation.  This  means  of  preven- 
tion may  in  case  of  need  be  assisted  by  cultivating  "  wood- 
maiitels."  A  wood-mantel  is  a  strip  of  ground  along  the 
margin  of  a  forest  ui)on  which  hardy  trees  are  planted 
at  such  distances  tliat  the  single  trees  may  be  able  to 
send  their  roots  both  perpendicularly  and  horizontally 
into  the  ground  so  as  to  fully  resist  the  fury  of  the  wind- 
storms and  to  develop,  far  down  upon  the  trunk,  strong 
branches  by  which  cold  winds  are  prevented  from  enter- 
ing the  forest. 

Alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  surface  soil 
causes  often  the  greatest  injury  to  young  plantations,  es- 
l)ecially  when  they  are  produced  by  seeding.  In  such 
case  the  roots  are  lifted  and  separated  from  their  hold 
upon  the  soil.  The  deep  roots  which  penetrate  below 
the  reach  of  frosts  are  broken  off,  and  from  the  higher 
roots  the  earth  is  more  or  less  loosened  ;  finally,  the  plant 
is  lifted  by  the  expansion  of  the  surface  soil,  and  the  re- 
maining roots  are  laid  bare.  The  seedling  then  dies.  The 
only  protection  against  this  evil  is  to  allow  the  natural 
grasses  and  weeds  to  extend  moderately  over  the  ground 
of  the  plantation  so  as  to  furnish  a  covering  for  the 
plants  not  unlike  that  afforded  by  snow.  In  forest-nur- 
series where,  under  no  circumstance,  grasses  and  weeds 


130  FOREST    PLANTING. 

are  allowed  to  grow,  we  can  preveut  the  damaging  influ- 
ence of  frost  ujion  the  plants  by  covering  the  rows  with 
a  layer  of  evergreen  boughs. 

The  Lite  frosts  in  spring  when  the  trees  have  already 
developed  their  buds  are  the  most  injurious,  killing 
young  trees  completely  and  affecting  the  older  ones  so  far 
as  to  incapacitate  them  from  producing  seeds  and  from 
making  any  accretion  in  wood.  This  evil  appears  most 
frequently  in  wet  or  swampy  valleys,  where  the  evapora- 
tion of  moisture  prevents  the  acce.-s  of  the  warmth  con- 
tained in  the  upper  layers  of  the  atmosphere,  and  thereby 
increases  the  cold  developed  by  evaporation  in  the  soil.  In 
such  cases  drainage  should  be  applied  to  let  off  the  excess 
of  water  ;  but  when  this  is  not  practicable,  liardy  trees 
should  be  planted  for  the  protection  of  the  young  ones, 
and  retained  till  the  latter  have  reached  a  size  large 
enough  to  oversliade  the  ground  and  to  prevent  too 
strong  an  evaporation  of  the  moisture  in  the  soil.  Pines, 
hornbeams,  alders  and  tlie  American  aspen  are  best 
adapted  for  this  purpose,  and  even  large  bushes  may  be 
advantageously  used. 

In  the  swampy  parts  of  mountainous  regions  there 
occur,  sometimes,  late  in  summer  heavy  though  not  last- 
ing frosts,  which  may  do  a  great  deal  of  harm  insomuch  as 
after  such  a  spell  a  second  growth  of  wood  takes  place, 
which  will  not  ripen  by  the  time  tlie  winter  sets  in,  and 
is  then  killed  by  frost.  Oaks  and  beeches  are  especially 
subject  to  this  casualty  Tlie  best  one  can  do  in  such 
case  is  to  plant  spruces  which  stand  these  vicissitudes 
very  well. 

Sun  heat  does  damnge  to  forests  when  there  is  a  want 
of  a  proper  water  supply.  If  this  can  be  procured  all 
danger  to  the  trees  is  over.  Irrigation  will  seldom  be 
practicable.  But  a  great  deal  of  the  natural  moisture 
can  be  retained  in  forests  by  preserving  a  compact  dens- 
ity of  the  tree-growth,  and  keeping  the  soil  well  shaded 


INJURIOUS    INFLUENCE    OF   THE    ELEMENTS.        131 

by  heavy  foliaged  trees.  Should  the  management  of  the 
forest  require  giving  the  treos  some  more  light  in  order 
to  increase  the  accretion  of  wood,  the  complete  clearing 
by  a  total  felling  should  not  longer  be  postponed  than  is 
unavoidably  necessary,  as  in  the  open  space  the  aug- 
mented falling  of  dew  will  benefit  a  young  plantation 
more  than  if  the  seedlings  are  grown  beneath  isolated 
single  trees  ;  under  which  they  are  apt,  owing  to  the  re- 
flected rays  of  the  sun  to  be  burnt  and  to  dry  up.  In 
regions  where  the  sun  is  known  to  injure  tree-growth, 
Scotch  pine  {piiius  sylvestris)  should  be  cultivated  ex- 
clusively. As  is  well-known,  this  tree  grows  where  other 
kinds  are  regularly  burnt  up  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  pines 
commence  to  show  openings  there  maybe  planted  among 
them  other  and  more  valuable  kinds  of  trees  which, 
unprotected,  would  not  stand  long  continued  sun  heat. 

The  loinds  produce  evil  effects  by  desiccating  the  soil 
and  blowing  away  the  fallen  leaves  which  cover  the 
ground.  Both  troubles  can  be  avoided,  or  at  least  less- 
ened, by  retaining  the  fullest  possible  density  of  the  tree_ 
growth,  especially  at  the  margins  of  the  woods.  Should 
this  not  be  practicable  the  establishment  of  so  called 
"  tvood-mantels "  as  described  on  page  129  is  advised. 
The  fallen  leaves  being  better  retained  at  the  ground 
when  there  is  a  small  growth  of  grasses,  it  may  be  some 
times  advantageous  to  open  the  forest  a  little  more,  caus- 
ing thereby  the  growth  of  a  thin  grass  layer  upon  the 
bare  forest-soil.  At  any  rate,  wide  openings  in  the  woods 
should  never  be  allowed  ;  but  if  the  same  by  any  accident 
occur,  planting  of  liardy  trees  and  the  intermixture  of 
conifers  with  foliaged  trees  should  be  undertaken  at  once, 
omitting  the  removal  of  the  stumps  of  felled  trees. 

Excessive  rains  are  apt  to  do  much  damage  to  forests, 
especially  to  the  various  cuUures  which,  in  a  properly 
conducted  forest-management,  will  invariably  have  to  be 
undertaken.     Planted  seedlings  cannot  be  much  injured 


132  FOKEST    PLANTING. 

by  rain  ;  but  the  rows  in  whieli  the  seeds  are  distributed 
m;iy  easily  be  washed  out  if  they  are  very  long  and  not 
laid  quite  liorizontally.  For  this  reason  it  is  recom- 
mended to  interrupt  long  seed-rows  often,  and  never  neg- 
lect to  give  them  a  horizontal  and  level  situation. 

Inundations  within  the  forests,  caused  by  long  con- 
tinued rains  may  also  do  much  injury  by  washing  away 
the  i^recious  uppersoil  consisting  of  rotten  and  half  rot- 
ten leaves  of  the  trees  and  twigs  ;  and  by  hurting  tree- 
growth  itself  through  temporary  submersion  of  the  roots 
and  parts  of  the  trunks  ;  but  most  of  the  damage  is 
done  where  forests  abut  for  long  distances  on  streams 
Avhicli  are  apt  to  overflow,  especially  at  the  opening  of 
spring  when  the  ice-covering  is  broken  up.  In  such 
case  big  floating  ice-cakes  are  sent  by  the  current  into 
the  woods  exposed  to  the  river-floods,  cutting  or  bending 
down  every  tree  which  is  not  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand the  pressure  caused  by  tlie  intruding  ice-cakes. 
In  order  to  prevent  or  at  least  to  lessen  those  dangerous 
actions  of  inundations,  copse-wood,  with  short  periods  of 
rotation  should  be  cultivated  on  the  forest  territory  as 
far  as  it  is  exposed  to  such  overflows.  The  copse  culture 
is  here  recommended  because  the  trees,  best  adapted  for 
it  are  quick  growers,  reaching  soon  above  the  high 
water  mark  and  possess  in  their  elastic  stems  and 
branches  efficient  means  to  break  the  force  of  currents, 
thereby  lessening  the  dangers  threatened  by  the  floating 
ice-cakes. 

The  banks  of  such  streams  should  be  planted  with 
rows  of  so-called  ''  Pollards  "  *  to  ward  off,  as  much  as 


*  Pollards  (in  German  Kopfholzer)  are  hardy  but  well  copsing  trees  of 
which  not  only  the  tops  but  also  parts  of  their  trunks  are  lopped  off  so 
that  about  8  or  10  feet  of  the  stems  remain.  At  the  new  top  sprouts 
will  come  out  forming  new  branches.  By  this  treatment  we  obtain 
more  powerful  trees  which  are  able  to  resist  the  inroads  of  the  ice-cakes 
and  to  detain  them  from  entering  the  over-flooded  parts  of  the  forest. 


INJURIOUS   IXFLUEXCE    OF  THE    ELEMENTS.         133 

can  be  done,  the  big  rampant  ice-cakes  from  entering  the 
overflown  copse-wood  and  destroying  its  tree-growth. 

Heavy  snoivfalls  do  much  more  liarm  than  rain  to  for- 
est trees,  especially  to  the  conifers,  as  most  of  them 
retain  during  the  winter  a  thick  growth  of  leaves  which 
form  a  substantial  bed  for  the  snow.  But  in  moun- 
tain regions  snow  falls  sometimes  in  October  or  Novem- 
ber when  the  deciduous  trees  have  not  yet  thrown  off 
their  foliage,  and  then  these  trees  are  also  liable  to  be 
hurt  by  snow. 

Snow  acts  most  perniciously  when  falling  in  large 
flakes  upon  the  branches  of  the  trees  while  they  are 
frozen  on  the  outside.  The  flakes  then  accumulate  upon 
the  branches  and  twigs  in  such  quantities  that  the  tops 
of  the  trees  form  a  nearly  unbroken  mass  of  ice,  which 
weighs  down  the  trees  and  sometimes  destroys  entire 
groves.  The  most  approved  safeguard  against  this  oc- 
currence consists  of  (1)  a  properly  made  thinning,  to- 
gether with  a  somewhat  wider  planting  than  is  usual  in 
plantations,  and  (2)  the  dividing  up  of  the  forest,  with- 
out inferferinq  ivith  its  C07npactness,  into  smaller  tracts, 
separated  by  avenues  or  paths  from  10  to  12  feet  wide, 
laid  out,  if  possible,  so  that  the  principal  rain  and  snow- 
storms strike  the  paths  crosswise  and  not  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  length.  See  page  GO,  note.  In  restocking 
denuded  woodlands  planting  is  also  for  the  same  reason 
to  be  preferred  to  seeding  as  in  the  latter  case  an  over- 
crowded condition  of  the  seedlings  can  seldom  be  avoided. 
This  is  particularly  true  when  pines  and  spruces  are  re- 
produced by  seeding. 

Woods  in  which  conifers  grow  mixed  with  foliaged 
trees  are  less  exposed  to  damages  by  snowdrifts,  because 
they  do  not  present  an  even  surface,  but  one  which  is  in- 
terrupted at  the  places  where  the  defoliated  trees  stand. 
The  snow  settles  then  all  around  the  naked  deciduous 
trees  without  hurting  them,  and  is  in  a  great  part  pre- 


134  FOREST    PLANTING. 

venteil  from  settling  upon  the  surface  stretching  over 
the  tops  of  the  conifers. 

Damages  caused  to  forests  by  an  excess  of  humidity  in 
the  soil,  which  has  to  be  drained,  and  by  drifiing  sands 
of  adjoining  sandlayers  are  not  infrequent.  AYe  shall 
treat  of  them  at  the  proper  places  in  Part  II  and  III. 

Fire  is  the  most  pernicious  agent  in  the  destruction  of 
our  forests.  It  is  seldom  that  such  fires  can  be  traced  to 
incendiarism.  They  mostly  result  from  the  carelessness 
of  lumbermen,  tourists  and  their  guides.  True,  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  State  Forest  Commission,  in  1885,  has 
done  much  to  i^revent  fires,  and  the  principle  that  pro- 
tection is  better  than  cure  has  proved  also  in  tliis  case  to 
be  the  best  guard  against  fire.  But  often  fires  originate 
in  tlie  woods  without  human  agency.  Lightning  has 
been  the  most  frequent  cause  of  v.'ood-fircs,  although  in 
some  cases  they  may  have  originated  from  other  causes 
as  for  instance  from  the  spontaneous  combustion  due  to 
the  decomposition  of  pyrites,  wliicli  is  known  to  have  set 
firo  to  beds  of  lignite  in  the  Saskatchewan  region.* 

It  is,  therefore,  very  necessary  that  besides  precaution- 
ary measures  stringent  rules  regarding  the  extinguishing 
of  fires  occurring  in  forests  and  denuded  woodlands 
should  be  adoj^ted.  The  establishment  of  a  proper  road- 
system,  and  the  division  of  a  large  forest  into  districts 
and  plots  sepnrated  by  paths  and  avenues  contributes 
much  to  confining  forest-fires.  Comuionly  they  origin- 
ate upon  light,  dry  soils,  when  overgrown  with  conifers 
;md  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  resinous  needles  ;  while 
a  disaster  of  this  kind  hardly  is  ever  known  in  forests 
^\ith  heavy  clay  or  loamy  soil  upon  which  foliaged  trees 
grow.f     A  discarded  cigar  or   a  blown  out   pipe  bowl 

*  See  American  For.  Congress  1888,  page  50. 

+  Thert-fore  in  Germany,  Avhere  railways  pass  throngh  coniferous  for- 
ests, and  it  is  feared  that  the  sparks  flying  from  the  locomotives  may 


INJURIOUS    INFLUENCE   OF  THE   ELEMENTS.         135 

thrown  upon  forest  soil  of  the  former  sort  readily  com- 
municates fire  to  its  surroundings.  The  smouldering 
sparks  eat  through  the  dry  vegetable  mould,  attack  the 
scant  grasses  a:id  mosses  and  make  so  much  headway 
that  the  green  leaves  of  the  young  conifers  are  soon  invaded. 
The  least  breeze  will  fan  the  smouldering  mass  into 
flames  which  spread  rapidly  to  the  tops  of  the  larger 
trees,  and  are  then  beyond  control. 

Happy  if  you  discover  the  fire  when  it  is  still  confined 
to  the  inflammable  material  on  the  surface  soil.  All  that 
is  necessary  then  is  to  have  some  energetic  men  with 
rakes,  brooms  and  shovels  to  rake  the  grasses,  leaves 
and  other  ignitible  substances,  scattered  over  the  forest 
soil,  several  yards  ahead  of  the  fire  toiuards  the  burning 
mass,  so  that  all  litter  and  other  combustible  material  in 
front  of  the  fire  is  accumulated  into  a  wall.  It  will  not 
be  difficult  with  a  sufficient  force  of  men  to  put  out  with 
their  shovels  and  spades  the  approaching  flames  and  con- 
fine them  to  the  raked-up  wall. 

Much  more  difficult  is  the  task  of  stopping  a  forest- 
fire  after  it  has  leached  the  branehes  of  the  larger  trees 
and  is  running  up  to  the  tree-tops.  Unless  a  heavy  rain 
sets  in  the  only  means  for  putting  the  fire  out  is  to  make, 
at  a  proper  distance  ahead  of  the  invading  fire,  a  broad 
passage  in  such  manner  that  the  trees  standing  there  are 
felled  and  thrown  towards  the  advancing  fire.  As  this 
Avork  takes  much  time  while  forest-fires  make  quick 
headway,  the  opening  in  front  of  the  fire  should  be  begun 
at  such  a  distance  from  the  fire  that  the  felling  is  fin- 
ished before  the  flames  reach  the  margin.     Otlierwise  the 


light  the  accumulated  leaves  and  other  ignitible  material,  as  dry  heather, 
mosses  a.  s.f.,  it  is  customary  to  guard  against  this  danger  by  safety- 
strips,  formed  by  not-coniferous  trees  that  are  planted  along  the  line  of 
railways,  as  for  instance  birches,  oaks,  poplars,  etc.  Besides  the  ground 
of  these  strips  is  always  kept  clean  of  dry  leaves,  litter  and  other  com- 
bustible material. 


136  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

entire  labor  is  frustrated,  and  the  work  has  to  be  done 
over  again,  at  a  greater  dist;ince  from  the  fire,  thus  sac- 
rificing a  still  larger  part  of  the  forest  than  would  have 
been  destroyed  if  the  distance  was  at  the  first  properly 
taken.  As  soon  as  the  fire  reaches  the  row  of  felled 
trees  a  sufficient  number  of  men  with  shovels,  spades  and 
wet  brooms  should  be  in  readiness  to  work,  and  to  use 
every  means  to  extinguish  the  sparks  and  flames  which 
fall  upon  the  overturned  trees. 

Althougli  the  metliods  employed  by  the  management 
of  European  forests  in  preventing  the  spreading  of  for- 
est-fires are  at  present  not  yet  fully  available  in  our 
State,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  briefly  describe  the  mode  of 
European  warfare  against  fires.  This  mode  is  in  general 
as  follows  : 

"  Whenever  a  forest-fire  is  discovered  the  church-bells 
in  all  neighboring  villages  begin  to  ring  and  all  able- 
bodied  persons — men,  women  and  children — turn  out 
with  axes,  spades,  shovels,  rakes,  brooms,  etc.,  under  the 
guidance  of  acknowledged  leaders.  They  combine  their 
movements,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  and 
otlier  circumstances,  and  dispose  their  forces  with  intell- 
igence and  promptitude.  A  mode  often  resorted  to  is 
the  contre  feu,  fighting  the  fire  with  fire  just  as  in  the 
Prairies  is  often  done.  Knowing  the  forest  well,  they 
direct  their  forces  to  one  of  the  safety-strips,  {%.  e.  open 
paths  in  the  woods  upon  which  no  shrubs  or  trees  are 
allowed  to  grow)  or  to  the  most  favorable  spot  on  the 
path  of  the  fire.  At  a  sufficient  distance  ahead  of  it, 
an  extended  line  of  workers  wider  than  the  fire  is  formed 
and  set  to  work  to  remove  as  much  of  the  inflammable 
material  as  possible.  They  cut  down  and  burn  and 
trample  and  shovel  earth  and  carry  away  stuff,  etc.,  and 
when  the  fire  in  its  course  reaches  that  spot,  it  finds 
little  food,  hesitates,  and  at  hist  is  generally  conquered." 

Our  forests  are  not  always  surrounded  by  villages,  the 


INJURIOUS  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ELEMENTS.    137 

alarm  bells  cannot  muster  crowds  of  willing  workers  to 
our  distant  wildernesses  ;  therefore,  we  cannot  yet  act  in 
case  of  emergency  as  they  do  in  Europe.  But  if  we  can- 
not extinguish  the  fire  in  quite  the  sama  way  as  they 
do,  we  can  do  just  as  much  to  prevent  it,  and  to 
limit  its  ravages.  The  best  means  adopted  in  Europe  for 
preventing  the  spreading  of  the  fire  over  a  large  extent 
of  the  ground,  is  the  laying  out  of  their  forests,  and 
dividing  them  in  somewhat  isolated  independent  blocks 
by  means  of  the  safety-strips,  in  German  called 
"  Schneissen."  *  With  such  openings  you  can  much 
more  easily  subdue  an  approaching  forest-fire  than  if  the 
work  of  extinguishing  has  to  be  commenced  in  the 
midst  of  an  unbroken  forest. 

However,  forest-fires,  especially  in  coniferous  woods, 
cause  another  injury  much  beyond  the  actual  destruc- 
tion of  timber  by  burning,  in  this,  that  the  trees  that 
have  been  killed  or  even  scorched  by  the  fire  become 
principally  liable  to  attacks  by  wood-boring  insects.  The 
larvae  of  these  by  boring  large  galleries  in  the  substance 
of  the  wood,  will  in  a  single  season  render  it  worthless 
for  sawing  or  use  in  any  other  form  than,  as  fire  wood 
and  quite  inferior  for  that.  It  is,  therefore,  the  best  we 
can  do  with  a  burnt  over  wood  plot  to  utilize  the  remains 
as  soon  as  possible  for  charcoals. 

*See  page  60,  note. 


138  FOREST    PLANTING. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  TRANSFORMATION  OF  THE   WILD   OR   NATURAL   WOODS 

INTO  CULTIVATED  FORESTS — WHAT  THE  AMERICAN 

FORESTER  SHOULD  DO  NEXT. 

While  the  calling  of  the  European  forester  chiefly  con- 
sists of  establishing  and  caring  for  artificial  forests — ■ 
originated  either  by  seeding  or  planting — the  destination 
of  the  American  forester  points  to  the  transformation  of 
our  still  abundant,  but  very  much  abused  natural  or  wild 
woods  into  cultivated  forests.  In  a  properly  managed  forest 
there  are  from  three  to  four  times  more  useful  trees  than 
in  a  natural  wood.  The  duty  of  the  American  forester, 
therefore,  is  to  apply  his  ingenuity  and  experience  to 
make  a  ceriahi  area  of  woods,  without  disturbiug  their 
'permanency  and  their  economic  influence,  producing  from 
three  to  four  times  more  than  it  does  now. 

It  is  true  that  exact  knowledge  of  scientific  forestry, 
as  applied  in  Europe,  may  help  him  to  understand  how 
most  easily  to  effect  this  transformation ;  but  as  the  main 
principles,  uj)on  which  scientific  forestry  is  based,  are  no 
strangers  to  our  intelligent  agriculturists  and  arboricul- 
turists, there  is  no  doubt  that  we  can  readily  find  per- 
sons fully  qualified  for  a  heginiiing,  and  that  they  Avill 
be  followed  by  others  who  will  endeavor  to  acquire  the 
full  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  this  science, 
completing  what  their  predecessors  may  have  left  unfin- 
ished, or  correcting  such  defects  in  the  treatment  of 
woods  ?.s  close  observation  and  experience  has  shown  them 
to  be  erroneous.  Up  to  the  present  time,  there  has  been 
no  demand  for  skilled  foresters  in  this  country.  Nay,  the 
framers  of  our  Forestry  Act  of  May  15,  1885,  prohibit  in 
§8  with  the  words  "  the  forest  preserve  shall  be  forever 


TRANSFOKMATION  OF  WILD  OR  NATURAL  WOODS.    139 

kept  as  wild  forest  lands  "  the  application  of  any  system 
of  forest  management  by  which  the  rich  products  of  an 
area,  containing  nearly  one  million  acres  of  woodland, 
may  be  utilized.  Our  Forest  commissioners,  therefore, 
can  hardly  be  blamed  when  they  construed  their  duty 
to  preserve  the  State  forests  only  as  a  direction  to  secure 
the  forests  from  the  ax  of  the  lumberman,  and  from  the 
torch  of  the  careless  or  wilful  incendiary.  * 

During  the  last  few  years,  however,  when  it  became 
more  and  more  apparent  that  our  State  forests,  under  the 
present  laws  and  management,  could  not  be  preserved, 
but  that  their  deforestation  was  progressing  to  such  a 
degree  that  the  watersheds  of  our  principal  rivers  were 
imperilled,  a  large  number  of  the  most  prominent  men 
in  the  city  and  State  of  New  York  commenced  a  move- 
ment which  culminated  last  year  in  the  formation  of  the 
Adirondack  Park  Association  for  the  purpose  of  greatly 
enlarging  the  territory  of  our  State  woodlands,  and  pre- 
serving the  forests  more  efficiently  by  advocating  the 
application  of  a  systematic  management  of  the  woods. 

This  is  a  very  timely  movement  which  undoubtedly 
will  make  a  lasting  mark  upon  the  history  of  the  polit- 
ical economy  of  our  State.  As  Just  before  mentioned,  we 
possess  among  our  citizens  many  who  are  both  theoreti- 
cally and  practically  well  acquainted  with  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  growth  and  reproduction  of  forest-trees, 
and  with  the  exploitation  of  woodlands.  Such  men,  if 
endowed  with  good  executive  ability  and  assisted  by 
experienced  civil  engineers,  could  be  safely  entrusted 
with  the  introduction  of  a  systematic  management  of  our 
State  forests.  Generally  speaking,  their  efforts  would  be 
directed : 

{a)  To  insure  the  permanency  of  tree-growth. 

{b)  To  develop  and  increase,  after  a  well-considered 

*  See  Report  of  the  St.  For.  Com.  for  1888,  p.  VI. 


140  FOREST   PLANTING. 

plan  of  thinning,  pruning  and  felling,  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  forests,  and 

(c)  To  restock  the  denuded  woodlands  by  seeding  or 
planting  such  trees  as  are  most  desired  and  best  adapted 
to  soil,  climate  and  location. 

In  particular,  the  labors  to  be  performed  during  the 
first  four  or  five  years  would  consist  of  the  following : 

(1)  A  surveyor  accompanied  by  an  expert  on  soils  and 
woods  should  first  survey  the  whole  tract,  and  then,  under 
the  advice  of  the  expert,  mark  off  and  map  out  such  sub- 
divisions as  are  indicated  by  diversity  of  soil,  tree-growth 
and  other  conditions  affecting  the  production  and 
development  of  forest-trees. 

(2)  Then  the  best  plan  of  laying  out  roads  and  ave- 
nues, which  will  have  to  be  constructed  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  timber  and  other  wood  products,  has  to  be 
deliberately  considered.  This  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant works  for  the  future  management  ®f  the  woods.  It 
should  be  entrusted  only  to  a  person  who  is  theoretically 
and  practically  fully  conversant  with  such  operations.  For 
it  is  not  sufficient  to  lay  out  one  or  more  roads  to  satisfy 
the  transient  and  local  wants  which  have  chanced  to 
spring  up;  but  the  entire  interests  of  the  forest  in  its 
present  and  future  condition  as  well  as  those  of  its  envi- 
rons have  to  be  looked  after,  and  a  road  system  has  to  be 
devised  which,  although  not  yet  fully  required,  will  be 
necessary  in  the  future  when  the  woods  are  more  developed, 
and  the  time  arrives  that  the  wood  products  will  be 
utilized  to  their  fullest  extent. 

(3)  A  wooded  region  to  be  taken  in  hand,  and  to  be 
worked  systematically,  should  after  the  completion  of  the 
operations  indicated  in  1  and  2,  be  laid  out  in  districts  con- 
taining from  100,000  to  1 50,000  acres,  and  subdivided  in 
smaller  ones  of  from  10  to  20,000  acres.  While  the  whole 
tract  would  be  supervised  by  one  Over-forester,  the  subdivi- 
sions should  be  under  the  continual  care  and  attention  of 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  WILD  OR  NATURAL  WOODS.    141 

a  forester,  acquainted  with  the  methods  of  the  routine 
work,  who  should,  according  to  the  directions  given  by 
the  Over-forester,  superintend  the  working  force  of 
laborers  employed  in  cutting  and  removing  the  wood 
products,  or  in  cultivating  and  planting  denuded 
stretches  within  the  district.  The  Forest  Officials  should 
have  a  permanent  residence  Avithin  their  territory,  and  it 
should  be  their  duty  to  guard  the  place  against  fire  and 
trespass,  for  which  purpose  they  should  have  the  power 
to  arrest  trespassers. 

The  boundaries  of  the  districts,  and  their  subdivisions, 
may  be  formed  either  naturally  by  old  roads,  streams, 
ditches,  adjoining  open  fields,  etc.,  or  artificially  by  open- 
ing avenues  and  roads.  Under  all  circumstances,  adjoin- 
ing forests  belonging  to  different  owners  should  be 
separated  by  a  clearing  of  trees  along  the  boundaries, 
about  one  rod  wide,  to  which  each  party  should  contrib- 
ute one-half  of  the  space  so  that  a  properly  indicated 
boundary  line  would  run  in  the  midst  of  this  path. 

(4)  After  the  above-mentioned  labors  have  been  com- 
pleted the  first  and  most  effective  step  to  be  taken  in 
order  to  transform  a  wild  wood  into  a  cultivated  forest,  is 
to  thin  it  out,  that  is,  to  cut  and  remove  all  inferior  vege- 
tation and  dead  trees  as  well  as  those  that  encroach  upon 
the  quick  development  of  the  more  desirable  trees;  but 
with  the  restriction  that  the  soil  may  not  be  exposed  to 
sunlight  and  atmospheric  influences.*  In  order  to  enable 
the  laborers  to  do  this  work  efficiently,  the  subdivisions  of 
the  forests  should  be  cut  up  in  blocks  containing  from  3 
to  400  acres,  and  separated  by  a  clearing  or  path  about 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  called  in  German  "  Schneis- 
sen,"  upon  which  the  output  of  the  block  can  be  removed. 

(5)  When  the  roads  and  avenues  in  a  large  forest  have 
been  established  and  made  practicable,  we  can  go  on  cut- 

*  See  page  111.  sqq 


142  FOREST  PLANTING. 

ting  and  removing  all  mature  and  overmature  trees, 
observing  as  far  as  possible  the  restriction  made  by- 
thinning  out  the  woods,  viz.,  to  preserve  the  natural  soil 
conditions  to  the  best  of  our  ability. 

(6)  While  in  cutting  and  removing  wood  products  out 
of  the  forests  the  rule  of  performing  this  work  with  the 
greatest  care  and  regard  toward  the  adjoining  tree- 
growth  has  to  be  strictly  obeyed  (see  p.  114.  i.f.) ;  the 
felling  itself  should  be  done  so  as  to  promote  a  natural 
reproduction  according  to  the  directions  given  in  Chapter 
XII.  But  where  this  is  impracticable — and  this  will 
often  happen  in  wild  woods — there  should  be  no  delay 
in  establishing  forest  nurseries,  not  only  for  rearing  the 
required  seedlings  for  restocking  or  filling  out  denuded 
wood  areas ;  but  also  for  collecting  at  the  proper  times 
ripe  seeds  from  the  most  desirable  kinds  of  trees  in  the 
whole  forest.  A  good  gardener,  well  versed  in  the  culture 
of  trees,  will  prove  fully  competent  to  manage  such  a 
concern. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  possible  absence  of  men 
fully  acquainted  with  the  methods  of  scientific  forestry 
should  not  prevent  us  from  the  int'  rduction  of  a  rational 
treatment  of  our  wild  woods,  as  every  thing  that  has  to 
be  done  during  the  first  four  or  five  years  before  scien- 
tific methods  may  be  employed,  can  be  perfectly  done 
by  our  own  citizens  without  any  prejudice  to  the  future 
management.  In  the  mean  time,  if  it  should  be  necessary 
to  employ  skilled  foresters,  enough  of  them  will  probably 
be  found.* 

*  The  report  of  the  State  Forest  Commission  for  1886,  on  page  17.  i.f., 
contends  that  scientifically  educated  foresters  cannot  be  obtained  here. 
This  statement  is  not  supported  by  facts,  as  skilled  foresters  are  very 
often,  through  the  advertising  columns  of  the  New  Tork  news- 
papers, seeking  employment.  Certainly  they  do  not  find  it  in  the 
management  of  woods,  because  such  a  thing  like  that  does  not  exist 
here  ;  but  they  embark  in  allied  employments,  especially  in  agriculture. 
However,  as  soon  as  the  State  will  introduce  a  systematic  management 


TRANSFOKMATIOiq-  OF  WILD  OR  NATURAL  WOODS.    143 

By  inducing  our  State  to  enlarge  its  wooded  area 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  to  introduce  there  a  meth- 
odical management,  we  should  urge  this  measure 
for  the  sole  reason,  that  this  is  the  only  means  to  pre- 
serve the  forest-growth  upon  the  woodlands  containing 
the  watersheds  of  our  principal  rivers  inrmanently ,  and 
that  without  a  permanent  forest-growth  upon  these  lands, 
the  continuance  of  a  regular  water-flow  to  the  rivers 
would  be  greatly  endangered.  That  the  State  woods  will 
yield  lateron  a  revenue,  if  managed  on  business  princi- 
ples, cannot  be  doubted.  But  we  should  not  expect  such 
a  result  during  the  next  generation.  The  income  ob- 
tained at  present  by  European  Governments  from  their 
well-managed  forests,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  a 
well-conducted  administration  of  forests  may  be  able  to 
perform.  However,  it  would  be  a  very  erroneous  concep- 
tion of  the  present  desolate  condition  of  our  State  forests 
and  of  the  wide  disproportion  between  the  value  of  lum- 
ber and  the  cost  of  both  labor  and  transportation,  as  we 
find  in  our  country,  if  we  should  expect  with  the  intro- 
duction of  a  methodical  forest  management,  to  at  once 
obtain  the  same  pecuniary  results  which  the  European 
governments  have  realized  through  a  well-organized  forest 


of  its  forests,  there  will  be  made  undoubtedly  many  offers  to  serve  the 
commonwealth. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  of  interest  to  our  forestry  students  to 
learn  that  the  tendency  of  European  experts  in  sylviculture,  contrary 
to  former  practices  in  the  management  of  forests,  is  lately  directed  to  a 
more  close  observation  of  Nature's  workings  in  the  wild  forests.  They 
try  now  to  sustain  their  theories  from  facts  suggested  to  them  by  Nature, 
rather  than  to  follow  the  narrow  paths  outlined  by  old  authorities. 
Whereas  formerly  the  European  forester  advocated  the  cultivation  of 
forests  with  pure  stock,  divided  in  blocks  with  adequate  revolutions  of 
cutting  and  replanting,  the  present  generation  acknowledges  in  many 
respects  the  gi-eat  advantages  of  the  natural  woods,  and  recommends 
now  in  the  establishment  of  new  forests,  mixed  planting,  and  In  their 
exploitation  the  selection  of  migle  trees,  instead  of  the  former  complete 
clearing  of  entire  wood  areas. 


144  FOUEST   PLANTING. 

service  with  the  greatest  exertions  during  the  last  fifty 
years. 

What  we  may  reasonably  expect,  is  to  bring  our  woods 
after  continued  and  well-directed  operations  during 
the  first  decade,  to  a  condition  in  which  they  may 
prove  self-supporting.  Having  reached  this  point,  with 
which  a  great  benefit  to  our  State  will  be  gained — see  pa- 
ges 25  and  26 — we  may  be  confident,  that  enlarged  know- 
ledge and  experience  of  our  Forest  Officials  in  matters  of 
scientific  Forestry  will  render  our  State  forests  from  year 
to  year  more  profitable,  with  a  steadily  improving  condi- 
tion of  the  forests;  so  that  the  next  century  may  witness 
such  an  increase  of  the  wealth  to  our  State  from  this 
single  source,  as  we  are  now  entirely  unable  to  imagine. 
People  will  then  bless  those  men  who  undauntedly 
persisted  in  establishing  a  State  industry,  by  which  not 
only  tlie  commonwealth  derived  a  handsome  income,  but 
which  also  created  the  opening  of  a  new  and  honorable 
career  to  many  men  for  profitable  employment.  This 
condition  of  things  will  be  the  more  gratifying  as  the  peo- 
ple will  not  be  taxed  for  the  support  of  a  small  army  of 
Forest  Officials  and  laborers;  they  will  be  paid  by  the 
profits  derived  from  their  operations  in  the  culture  of  the 
forest,  and  they  Avill  earn  much  more  than  they  expend. 

In  conclusion,  a  few  remarks  in  regard  to  the  nomen- 
clature used  in  the  science  of  forestry  might  be  well- 
timed. 

Forestry,  as  applied  on  the  Euroi^ean  Continent,  being 
an  entirely  unknown  science  in  England  and  its  depen- 
dencies, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  English  lan- 
guage has  no  designations  appropriate  to  the  technical 
words  and  methods  of  managing  forests  recognized  in 
European  forest  economy.  We,  therefore,  in  introducing 
systematic  forestry  in  our  country,  have  mostly  to  fall 
back  upon  the  expressions  applied  in  Europe,  till  v,'e  have 
advanced  so  far  as  to  establish  our  own  system  of  desig- 


TRANSFOKMATION  OF  WILD  OR  NATURAL  WOODS.    145 

nation.  In  the  mean  time  we  should  apply  those  words, 
which  although  now  used  indiscriminately  in  forestry  mat- 
ters, are  able  to  recive  a  specific  technical  signification  in 
a  confined  and  appropriate  meaning.  First  among 
them  is  the  word  "  forest."  It  is  in  English  used  as  being 
identical  with  "woods;"  and  yet  it  would  be  a  great  lin- 
guistic improvement,  if  we  would  only  apply  it  to  those 
woods,  which  are  cultivated  and  systematically  managed; 
and  leave  the  expression  "  woods  "  to  the  wild  or  natu- 
rally grown-up  Avoods.  We  would  then  very  properly 
speak  of  the  North  'woods  of  the  Adirondacks,  but  very 
improperly,  when  designating  them  as  wild  or  natural 
''forest^:' 


PART  II. — Forest  PlantIxNG  on  Plains. 


Having  treated  in  the  foregoing  part  of  general 
matters  of  forest  culture,  we  will  now  consider  the 
various  kinds  of  forest  planting. 

All  forest  vegetation  is  dependent,  not  only  upon  the 
climate  of  the  country,  hut  also  upon  the  soil  and  loca- 
tion The  State  of  New  York  is  especially  favored  in  its 
situation,  as  its  climate  is  moderated  by  the  close  prox- 
imity to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  circumstance  that  increases 
the  humidity  of  the  generally  very  dry  air,  and  causes  a 
snow,  and  rainfall  sufficient  to  produce  a  luxurious 
forest-growth.  Woods,  therefore,  have  sprung  up  all 
over  the  State,  except  in  those  places  where  the  soil  is 
too  poor  to  bring  forth  any  vegetation  at  all,  and  the 
variety  of  trees  of  spontaneous  growth  is  larger  here  than 
in  any  other  State  of  the  Union  by  reason  of  the  many 
varieties  of  soil  and  diversities  of  elevation,  the  latter  in 
many  cases  reaching  heights  where  only  bushes  and 
shrubs  grow. 

As  the  vegetation  on  the  plains  shows  a  marked  differ- 
ence from  that  on  the  mountains,  both  in  regard  to 
varieties  and  treatment,  we  have  to  consider  them  sepa- 
rately and  will  take  up  first.  Forest  Planting  on  Plains. 


146 


PLANTING   ON   LANDS  WITH  ALLUVIAL  SOIL.       147 

CHAPTER  I. 

FOREST  PLANTING  ON  LANDS  WITH  ALLUVIAL  SOIL. 

In  our  State  we  have  a  great  amount  of  alluvial  soil 
formed  by  the  deposits  of  the  many  rivers  and  rivulets 
which  descend  from  our  hills  and  mountains.  This  soil 
mostly  contains  such  favorable  mixture  of  earthy  and 
mineral  substances  as  to  promote  all  vegetation  to  the 
highest  degree — and  on  such  places,  agriculture  lays  its 
exclusive  and  well-founded  claims.  But  there  are  among 
them  many  low  sites  which,  being  subjected  to  oft- 
repeated  inundations,  cannot  be  used  for  agricultural 
purposes,  and  yet  may  be  utilized  advantageously  for  the 
cultivation  of  willows. 

Although  the  willow  is  not  considered  as  being  a 
forest-tree  proper,  the  management  of  large  forests, 
especially  that  of  mountain  forests,  requires  often  the 
propagation  and  cultivation  of  willows  on  an  extensive 
scale,  because  they  chiefly  furnish  the  material  to  bind 
the  drifting  sand,  and  to  hold  the  loose  soil  along  the 
banks  of  streams  in  place.  For  this  purpose — as  we  will 
see  in  Part  Hi — those  kinds  are  cultivated  which  retain 
their  shape  as  shrubs;  while  the  tree-like  kinds  are 
used  to  serve  as  pollards,  (see  page  133  Note*).  The 
propagation  is  effected  by  cuttings — see  page  67 — and 
in  the  management  of  the  willow  shrubs  along  the  banks 
of  rivers,  exposed  to  inundations  we  resort  to  a  coppice 
treatment  with  short  rotations  from  eight  to  ten  years, 
the  rods  retaining  up  to  that  age  the  pliability,  by 
which  they  are  able  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the 
invading  waters,  and  to  break  their  force  without  being 
broken  themselves.     If  they  are  allowed  to  grow  older. 


148  FOREST   PLANTING. 

they  lose  their  flexibility,  and  becoming  stiff  and 
immovable,  the  intruding  waters  create  behind  them 
whirlpools  which  undermine  the  soft  soil,  and  form  pools 
with  stagnant  waiter,  by  which  not  only  the  further 
plant-growth  but  also  the  consistency  of  the  bank  is 
endangered.  What  kinds  of  willows  of  the  many  indig- 
enous species  we  should  employ  for  the  purposes  stated, 
will  be  best  learned  from  experience  made  in  the  different 
localities  of  our  State  in  regard  to  the  growth  and 
behavior  of  the  same.  That  our  indigenous  species  are 
not  of  great  economic  value  especially  for  osier  jDurposes 
is  pretty  certain,  as  their  twigs  and  rods  are  mostly 
wanting  the  flexibility  which  renders  them  so  useful  in 
basket-making.  To  furnish  the  required  material  for 
this  growing  industry  we  therefore  have  had  for  years 
to  look — and  are  still  looking  upon  importations  of 
rods  from  Germany.  Lately,  however,  the  cultivation 
of  some  of  the  foreign  species  having  met  with  success 
here,  we  are  now  able  to  advantageously  employ  a  culture 
by  wdiich  many  areas  of  lands  may  be  made  profitable 
which  otherwise  would  be  entirely  useless. 

The  willows  mostly  used  in  Germany  for  industrial 
purposes  are:  salix  purpurea  and  viminalis.  The  latter 
grows  tree-like,  while  the  former  develops  into  shrubs. 
Salix  viminalis  produces  a  much  larger  quantity  of  twigs, 
and  strong  ones  at  that,  which  farmers  use  for  building 
fences.  Salix  jnirpurea  is  by  far  not  so  coarse  as  vimi- 
nalis and,  therefore  especially  in  demand  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  finer  grades  of  willow-ware.  In  our 
State  the  salix  purpurea  is  called  the  red  osier,  and 
although  imported  from  Germany,  succeeds  very 
well.  It  produces  numerous  pliant,  evenly  grown 
rods  which  are  especially  adapted  for  wattling  p^ir- 
poses.  This  willow,  the  bark  of  which  furnishes  also 
the  material  for  extracting  salicylic  acid,  is  not  so  fasti- 


PLANTING   ON  LANDS  WITH  ALLUVIAL  SOIL.       14^ 

dious  in  regard  to  the  soil,  growing  well  not  only  on 
moist  but  also  on  dry,  sandy  soil,  and  even  on  swampy 
lands.  It  can  endure  the  heat  and  cold  as  well  as  moisture 
and  dryness.  The  profits  of  a  willow  plantation  are  very 
large.  In  Germany  they  used  to  be  as  high  as  $80  per 
acre.  The  cultivation  is  comparatively  easy.  The  nat- 
ural homes  of  the  willow  are  the  banks  of  rivers  and  the 
low  bottom  lands  subjected  to  temporary  inundations. 
The  soil  best  adapted  for  a  permanent  willow  plantation 
is  a  moist  humus  with  a  sandy  subsoil.  There  is  no  kind 
of  tree  with  which  water  plays  so  important  a  part  as  the 
willow.  It  is  true  the  willow  likes  a  moist  soil  which 
may  sometimes  be  even  entirely  overflowed,  but  the 
water  should  not  remain  for  too  long  a  time  and,  there- 
fore, in  places  where  this  occurs,  drainage  should  be 
resorted  to. 

Willow  plantations  require  a  thorough  cultivation  with 
deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  to  the  depth  of  18 
inches.  If  expenses  are  no  obstacle,  spading  in  such  a 
way  as  to  turn  the  subsoil  up  and  spread  it  over  the 
humus  is  to  be  preferred.  Then  the  roots  of  the  young 
plants  have  the  benefit  of  the  fertile  soil,  while  the  in- 
fertile subsoil  on  the  top  prevents  the  growth  of  weeds. 
For  spring  planting — and  this  is  in  our  State  preferable 
to  fall  planting — the  ground  should  be  fully  prepared 
during  the  preceding  fall  before  the  first  frost  appears 
and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  frost  and  air  during 
the  winter.  The  cuttings  should  be  made  late  in  the 
fall,  when  vegetation  has  come  to  rest,  about  13  inches 
long,  from  vigorous  and  sound  main  shoots,  using  only 
the  lower  half  of  them.  They  should  be  kept  during 
the  winter,  bundled  up  in  moist  sand  in  a  place  which 
is  free  from  frost.  They  are  planted  from  one  to  two 
feet  apart  in  rows,  which  are  wide  enough  to  allow  the 
soil  between  them  to  be  worked,  in  order  to  eradicate 


150  FOREST  PLANTING. 

the  weeds.  The  best  way  to  keep  the  plantation  clean, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  secure  a  rapid  growth,  is  to 
manure  the  space  between  the  rows  and  raise  therein 
potatoes,  turnips,  or  other  root-fruits  which  require  a 
good  deal  of  cultivation  during  the  summer.  If  this 
system  be  practiced,  there  will  be  already  in  the 
second  year  shoots  so  large  as  to  allow  a  crop.  Large 
plantations,  however,  are  commonly  divided  into  three 
to  four  fields  (lots),  of  which  one  is  cut  every  year. 
This  short  rotation  is  preferred,  because  the  rods  when 
young  are  more  pliable  than  when  grooving  older.  In 
planting  the  cuttings,  care  should  be  taken,  not  to  dis- 
turb the  callus,  which  had  been  formed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cuttings  during  the  time  of  their  being  bundled  up 
and  covered  with  moist  sand.  They  should  be  set  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees  in  the  plant  hole  with  the 
eyes  in  an  upward  direction.  Cuttings  planted  in  this 
way  are  much  better  packed  in  the  ground  by  the  set- 
tling of  the  soil  than  when  set  straight  up,  and  there  is 
nothing  which  hurts  the  growth  of  cuttings  more  than 
becoming  loose  in  the  soil  and  being  shaken  by  the 
wind.    See  page  67. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FOREST  PLANTING  ON  MARSHY  OR  SWAMPY  LANDS. 

There  are  many  acres  of  bottom  land  along  the  rivers, 
which,  owing  to  their  low  situation,  cannot  be  drained. 
Upon  them  there  soon  appear  sour  grasses,  reeds, 
rushes  and  sedges,  out  of  the  decaying  materials  of 
which  and  of  other  vegetable  and  mineral  accretions 
the  bogs,  marshes  or  fens  and  swamps  are  formed. 


PLANTING   ON  MARSHY  OR^SWAMPY   LANDS.         151 

Wet  grounds  are  called  either  bogs  or  marshes  or 
swamps.  Bogs  are  the  softest  grounds,  and  often  too 
soft  to  bear  a  man.  Marshes  or  fens  are  less  soft,  but 
very  wet ;  however,  they  bear  a  man.  Sivamps  are  soft 
and  spongy  but  sustain  man  and  beast,  and  are  often 
pastured.  The  subsoil,  mostly,  is  of  sandy  structure. 
If  these  wee  grounds  contain  a  good  proportion  of 
minerals  and  mineral  combinations  with  vegetable 
matter,  they  afford  the  best  opportunity  for  raising 
every  cultivated  fruit.  But  commonly  this  kind  of 
soil  is  too  porous  and  does  not  possess  the  consistency 
required  by  plant  vegetation  for  its  vigorous  growth. 
Should  it  be  possible  to  overcome  this  obstacle  by 
adding  sand  or  clay  to  the  surface  soil  there  is  no  artifi- 
cial meadow  which  will,  under  proper  treatment,  pro- 
duce more  grass  and  fodder  than  such  a  natural  mea- 
dow. If  such  meadows  can  be  drained  even  only  by 
forming  raised  beds,  with  deep  ditches,  every  crop 
could  be  successfully  raised  upon  them.  But  most 
localities  of  this  kind  cannot  be  drained,  and  being 
exposed  to  repeated  inundations  by  rivers,  there  is  no 
ether  means  of  utilizing  them  than  by  growing  forest- 
trees.  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  in  this  case  con- 
sists in  burning  over  the  top  of  the  soil,  in  doing 
which,  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the  fire  should  not 
penetrate  too  deeply  into  the  soil  and  consume  the 
entire  vegetable  mould,  for  then  the  soil  would  lose  most 
of  its  fertility,  and  produce  only  shrubs  and  mullen 
stalks.  But  if  only  the  top  of  the  surface  soil  is  burnt, 
the  mixing  of  the  ashes  with  the  remaining  soil  renders 
it  very  fertile,  and  planting  may  be  begun  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring. 

Another  means  to  prepare  swampy  grounds  for  tree 
culture  is  to  dig  out  narrow  but  deep  ditches  at  the 
proper  distance  apart,  and  spread  the  dugout  upon  the 


152  FOREST  PLANTING. 

beds  thus  formed.  The  softer  the  field,  the  deeper  the 
trenches  should  be  dug,  and  consequently  the  higher 
should  the  beds  be  raised.  Although  there  is  much 
left  for  one's  own  judgment  in  this  matter,  the  propor- 
tion of  the  width  of  beds  to  that  of  the  ditches  usually 
is  five  to  one,  while  the  depth  of  the  ditches  is  regulated 
by  the  depth  of  the  vegetable  mould  and  the  level  of  the 
ground-water.  The  ditches  should  be  so  deep  as  to 
bring  up  a  layer  of  the  sandy  subsoil  at  least  six  inches 
thick,  and  heighten  the  beds  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
level  of  the  ground-water  remains  at  least  three  feet 
below  the  surface  soil.  After  the  lapse  of  one  year, 
planting  may  be  begun  without  any  further  Avorking  of 
the  soil,  the  heavy  sand  sinking  by  its  own  Aveight  into 
the  porous  surface,  thus  rendering  it  fit  for  sylvi-cul- 
ture.  But  should  the  dugup  subsoil  be  loamy,  a  thor- 
ough plowing  and  mixing  with  the  top  soil  is  necessary. 
On  the  soil  of  a  swamp  prepared  in  this  manner, 
''planting"  of  forest-trees  is  decidedly  preferable  to 
"seeding"  as  such  ground  invites  the  growth  of 
grasses  too  much,  and,  therefore,  the  surface  will  soon  be 
covered  by  a  dense  mat  of  grass  and  weeds  unless  more 
often  disturbed  by  the  cultivator,  a  treatment  which 
would  in  a  seeded  field  prevent  the  seeds  from  sprout- 
ing. The  best  time  for  planting  is  the  spring,  as  by 
planting  during  the  fall,  winter  killing  could  not  be 
avoided  on  account  of  the  elevated  lay  of  the  spongy 
beds,  and  their  being  greatly  exposed  to  frost.  But 
even  to  plant  seedlings  (from  one  to  two  years  old)  the 
rapidity  of  the  growth  of  gras^  and  weeds  is  very  obnox- 
ious, and,  therefore,  to  prevent  any  inroads  from  this 
cause,  hill-planting  has  to  be  resorted  to.*  In  these  hills, 
made  from  the  subsoil   earth,  the  seedlings  are  set  as 

*See  pages  9T  and  98. 


PLANTING   ON   MOOKLANDS.  153 

deep  as  possible  without  covering  the  top  of  the  hill. 
Upon  swamps  containing  rich  soil  should  be  planted 
spruces,  oaks  and  beeches,  with  which  ash,  elm  and 
maple,  may  be  mixed.  On  such  places  the  most  lucrative 
forest  management  for  producing  timber  and  lumber 
can  be  introduced,  as  here  also  all  valuable  light-needing 
trees  prosper  and  grow  so  strongly  that  even  an  inter- 
mixture of  the  otherwise  much  dreaded  birch  may  be 
permitted. 

If  the  soil  of  the  swamp  is  poor,  spruces  and  oaks 
may  be  planted  under  the  protection  of  the  pine.  On 
sloughs,  that  is,  swamps  with  such  wet  ground  as  can- 
not be  drained  at  all,  the  swamp  hickory,  alder  and  black 
ash  will  still  thrive,  and  even  the  spruce  and  balsam  fir 
will  grow  and  exercise  a  beneficient  eifect  in  absorbing 
the  moisture  of  the  ground  and  rendering  it  more  com- 
pact. 


CHAPTER  III. 


FOREST   PLANTING   ON  MOORLANDS. 

Leaving  the  low  bottom  lands  of  the  rivers — called 
the  alluvium — and  ascending  to  the  higher  plains  we 
find,  that,  in  the  original  state  of  the  country,  a  few 
kinds  of  the  Erica  family  take  possession  of  the  territory 
both  dry  and  wet,  and  form  the  principal  vegetation. 
Only  where  the  ground  is  too  sandy  and  loose  do  they 
give  way  to  lichens,  mosses  and  other  plants  which  are 
content  with  very  poor  soil,  as  for  instance,  small  leaved 
winter  dock,  corn  marigold  etc.  Those  Ericas  possess 
the  peculiarity  of  secreting  through  their  leaves  much 


154  FOREST  PLANTING. 

resin,  and  this  combined  with  the  rotten  roots  and  other 
parts  of  the  plants,  bring  into  existence  in  the  course  of 
time,  so  thick  and  impenetrable  a  surface  soil  that 
neither  rain  nor  any  other  moisture  of  the  air  or  earth 
can  sink  into  the  ground.  Moreover,  should  any  ele- 
vation of  the  ground  prevent  the  stagnant  waters  from 
flowing  off,  swamps  are  formed  which  foster  the  growth 
of  aquatic  plants  (cotton-grasses,  tuft-grasses,  etc.),  by 
the  decay  and  rotting  of  which  the  organic  surface  of 
the  soil  is  continually  increased.  This  is  the  way  in 
which  the  so-called  moorlands  are  built  up.  When  the 
accumulations  of  aquatic  plants  have  reached  a  consider- 
able height  the  power  of  vegetation  passes  away  and 
peat  bogs  of  more  or  less  consistency  are  formed  accord- 
ing to  whether  the  water  is  drained  off  or  retained  in  the 
soil.  In  the  lowlands  of  the  heaths  this  soil  is  often 
mixed  with  more  or  less  muck.*  Should  it  be  possible 
to  apply  drainage  here,  there  would  be  an  opportunity 
for  cultivating  every  kind  of  grain.  But  if  moorlands 
do  not  contain  anything  to  counteract  the  noxious  effect 
of  the  too  abundant  carbonaceous  humus  and  humic  acid, 
there  is  no  other  means  of  utilizing  such  lands  except  to 
prepare  them  for  raising  forest-trees,  and,  for  this  pur- 
pose, to  mix  with  the  moor  soil  the  deeper  lying  mineralic 
ingredients  of  the  subsoil.  This  is  done  in  the  following 
manner:  After  the  moor  has  been  drained  as  much  as 
practicable  the  tufts  of  the  top  soil  are  scattered  all  over, 
and  the  surface  is,  as  much  as  possible,  made  level. 
Thereupon  deep  plowing  is  resorted  to  with  the  effect  of 
bringing  up  the  sand  from  the  subsoil  for  mixing  it  with 
the  moor  dirt.     Should  the  moor  layer  be  so  thick  that 


*Wc  mean  by  "  muck  "  the  vegetable  deposits  of  swamps  and  ponds, 
consisting  of  decayed  organic  substances  mixed  with  more  or  less  earth 
and  containing  much  carbon. 


PLANTING  ON  MOOKLANDS.  155 

the  subsoil  cannot  be,  reached  by  the  plow,  then  sand 
should  be  dug  uj)  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditches,  run- 
ning through  the  moor,  and  scattered  over  the  surface 
soil,  whereupon  by  deep  plowing  a  complete  mixing  of 
the  surface  soil  with  the  dugout  sand  should  be  perfected. 
If  the  surface  soil  be  pretty  compact  and  strong,  a  sand 
layer  from  five  to  six  inches  thick  will  be  sufficient, 
while  poorer  soil  should  be  enriched  by  a  layer  several 
inches  thicker. 

This  culture  may  be  preceded  by  burning  over  the 
surface  soil,  by  which  process  the  expenses  of  the  culti- 
vation are  remarkably  lessened.  But  if  the  turf  (top  of 
the  moor  soil)  proves  to  be  very  thick,  burning  over  the 
surface  soil  cannot  be  avoided,  but  must  be,  under  all 
circumstances,  employed. 

When  the  surface  of  a  moor  has  been  treated  in  this 
way,  the  spruce,  and  even  fir,  may  be  planted  as  principal 
stock  of  trees ;  as  the  soil,  even  during  the  driest  summers, 
will  contain  sufficient  moisture  to  favor  the  growth  of 
these  trees.  According  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  either 
beeches  and  oaks,  or  oaks  and  pines,  or  only  pines  are 
used  to  serve  as  mixture,  the  best  soil  been  assigned  to 
the  first-named  trees  and  the  next  best  to  the  second 
combination.  The  poorest  soil  will  not  permit  the  growth 
of  any  other  kind  of  trees  but  the  pine.  However,  under 
the  cover  of  this  tree  there  may  spruce  and  hemlock 
grow,  although  they  will  not  flourish  luxuriantly. 


156  FOREST  PLANTING. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FOREST   PLANTING   ON   HIGH   MOORS. 

It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  an  area  covered  with  the 
richest  humus,  if  exposed  to  continual  moisture,  will 
soon  lose  its  fertility,  and  all  plant-life  on  it  will  die,  as 
the  stagnant  water  thoroughly  chills  the  soil  and  leeches 
out  every  particle  of  plant-food.  Upon  the  remains  of 
the  destroyed  vegetation,  first  peat-mosses,  unci  later, 
more  developed  aquatic  plants  make  their  appearance. 
These  continually  die  off,  only  to  let  others  spring  up 
again,  and  in  the  fulness  of  time,  they  reach  such  an 
elevated  position  as  to  be  in  want  of  necessary  humidity. 
The  remainder  of  these  plants,  on  account  of  their  sub- 
mersion and  of  the  antiseptic  property  of  the  humic  acid 
contained  in  the  water  do  not  fully  decay,  but  accumu- 
late during  many  years  and  finally  form  a  thick  moss- 
turf  (cover  of  the  moor)  upon  which  some  of  the  ericaeas 
appear,  together  with  other  plants  which  are  content 
with  a  moist  moor  ground  and  sour  humus.  As  long  as 
the  bottom  of  a  moor  is  being  raised  by  this  accretion, 
the  moor  extends  further  on  over  the  margins  and 
becomes  larger,  for  the  original  vegetation  of  the  borders 
also  dies  out,  owing  to  the  increased  swampy  condition 
into  which  the  surrounding  margin  of  the  moor  has  been 
brought,  giving  way  to  the  mosses.  The  central  part 
of  these  moors,  having  grown  up  for  a  longer  time  than 
the  margins  (which  always  extend  laterally)  usually  has 
a  higher  situation  than  the  borders  and  is,  therefore, 
called  in  Germany  High  Moor  and  in  England  Moss- 
land.     The  vegetation  thereon  principally   consists   of 


PLANTING  ON  HIGH  MOORS.  157 

peat-mosses  and  heath-plants,  of  which  the  former 
occupy  the  low,  swamj)y  places,  while  the  latter  settle 
npon  the  comparatively  higher  and,  therefore,  drier  and 
more  compact  parts  of  the  moor — the  tufts 

The  first  annual  report  of  the  New  York  Forest  Com- 
mission contains  the  following  graphic  description  of 
these  moors  which  are  called  there  "  natural  meadows." 
"  These  natural  meadows  are  formed  by  the  gradual 
filling-up  of  lake  or  pond- beds  with  an  accumulated 
growth  and  deposit.  They  are  seen  in  the  Adirondacks 
in  all  stages  of  formation;  some  having  a  wide  swampy 
margin  with  a  matted  growth  of  aquatic  vegetation ;  and 
others  still,  entirely  grown  over.  The  last  stage  of 
development  is  the  natural  meadow,  level  as  a  floor,  on 
which  grows  a  scant,  wiry,  inferior  quality  of  grass." 

The  high  moors  or  moss  lands  are  formed  not  only  on 
plains  and  on  heaths,  but  also  in  forests  and  upon  mount- 
ains, covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  forest-trees. 
This  is  proved  by  the  many  large  trees  which  are  found 
in  the  peat  layers.  In  former  years  the  beavers,  by 
building  their  dams  across  the  forest  streams,  laid  the 
foundation  for  many  high  moors.  At  present,  reckless 
men,  who  undertake  to  transport  felled  trees  by  rafts 
upon  the  torrents  of  mountains,  often  stop  the  natural 
flow  of  the  waters,  by  erecting  dams,  and  cause  a  back 
flow  which  kills  even  the  most  luxurious  forest-growth, 
forming  a  nucleus  around  which  the  rapacious  aquatic 
plants  gather  and  work  up  their  way  in  the  above  des- 
cribed manner.  On  this  subject  the  cited  Report  of  the 
New  York  Forest  Commission  also  contains  a  vivid  des- 
cription which  we  think  will  be  very  interesting  to  the 
reader.  Under  the  heading  of  Beaver  Meadows  it  says, 
on  page  19,  "Years  ago  when  the  beavers  were  plenty  in 
the  Adirondack  waters,  they  built  their  dams  across  the 
creeks  and  streams.    Sometimes  these  dams  caused  long 


158  FOREST  PLANTING. 

back  flows,  covering  the  low  ground  where  the  stream 
was  sluggish  and  the  fall  slight.  The  surrounding  trees 
and  bushes,  water-killed  or  drowned  by  the  back  flow, 
or  gnawed  down  by  the  beavers,  fell  into  the  water  and 
gradually  decayed.  This  mixed  with  the  debris  brought 
by  floods,  as  time  went  on,  filled  their  pond,  and  aquatic 
vegetation,  finding  root  in  this  rich  mould,  soon  com- 
pleted the  work." 

In  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the  high  moors  the 
following  considerations  may  be  kept  in  view:  The 
peat-mosses  form  an  infertile  soil  and  wherever  the  top 
soil  consists  of  such  ingredients  there  is  no  possibility 
for  a  successful  culture  of  forest  vegetation.  But  the 
heath  plants  render  the  moor  soil  compact,  and  even 
enrich  it,  forming  in  due  time  a  surface  soil  which 
proves  the  more  nutritous  the  thicker  it  becomes,  and 
enables  us  to  proceed  with  growing  forest-trees  thereon. 
In  Europe  those  countries  which  contain  many  high- 
moors  are  very  poor  and,  therefore,  only  sparsely  settled. 
But  lately  the  moors  have  been  recommended  for  plant- 
ing them  with  forest-trees  and  people  have  successfully 
grown  there  all  kinds  of  trees,  especially  oak  seedlings 
as  coppice  wood  for  tanning  purposes. 

For  raising  forest-trees  upon  high  moors,  first  of  all 
there  has  to  be  ascertained  whether  mineralic  earth 
may  be  had  from  the  subsoil  without  too  much  exjiense. 
If  this  be  the  case,  the  culture  upon  raised  beds  as  des- 
cribed in  Chapter  II.  Avould  be  the  most  advisable  one. 
The  more  mosses  the  top  soil  contains  and  consequently 
the  poorer  this  soil  is,  the  more  sand  has  to  be  brought 
up  from  the  subsoil  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  moor 
soil.  Commonly  a  layer  of  sand  from  6  to  10  inches 
will  be  sufficient.  Should  the  moor  ground  be  too  deep 
to  reach  the  sandy  subsoil,  drainage  combined  with 
burning  over  the  top  soil  is  the  only  means  for  unlock- 


PLANTING   ON   HIGH   MOORS.  159 

ing  the  plant-producing  power  of  the  ground.  High 
moors  which  have  been  burnt  over  are  very  favorably 
changed,  both  in  regard  to  the  mechanical  and  chemical 
conditions  of  the  soil.  Naturally  the  peaty  ground  is 
too  porous  to  retain  moisture  and,  therefore,  in  dry 
weather  parches  up  while  it,  by  a  continuance  of  rain,  is 
converted  into  a  mud  pool.  After  the  surplus  water  has 
been  drained  off  and  the  top  soil  burnt  over,  the  ground 
becomes  more  compact  and,  for  this  reason,  does  not 
change  so  much  by  alternate  drying  up  and  being  over- 
flowed with  water.  In  this  condition  of  greater  density 
the  soil  is  still  enabled  to  let  in  the  gases  of  the  air, 
required  for  the  support  of  every  vegetation,  and  to 
easily  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  to  supply 
the  demands  of  the  plants.  Such  soil  does  not  retain  so 
much  water  as  thereby  to  kill  the  plant-roots  in  case  of 
frost.  The  chemical  condition  of  this  soil  is,  by  the 
burning  in  so  far  improved,  as  many  of  the  elements 
obnoxious  to  plant-growth,  are  destroyed  while  others 
enter  into  combinations  which  are  favoring  plant-growth. 
So  the  too  abundant  humic  acid  disappears  and  leaves  a 
carbonate  of  lime  Avhich  serves  to  further  take  out  the 
sourness  of  the  ground.  The  protoxide  or  black  oxide, 
which  is  always  found  in  great  quantities  on  such  places 
and  poisons  every  plant,  takes  up,  after  the  water  is 
removed,  more  oxygen,  and  is  then  changed  into  the 
unnoxious  peroxide,  or  red  iron  which  even  furnishes 
some  food  to  plants. 

As  for  the  trees  to  be  planted  after  the  high  moors 
have  received  the  proper  preparation,  it  has  been  proved 
to  be  best,  to  plant  upon  sanded  moor  ground  princi- 
pally the  spruce,  to  which  may  be  added  oak  and  pine. 
Upon  the  not  sanded  moors,  pine  is  the  leading  tree,  to 
which  the  spruce  and,  in  a  small  scale,  the  oak  may  be 
added  as  mixtures. 


160  rOEEST   PLANTING. 

Drainage  and  burning  over  the  surface  soil  being  the 
princij^al  means  to  bring  the  moors  into  such  a  condition 
as  to  plant  forest-trees  upon  them,  are,  therefore,  so 
important  that  they  may  well  form  the  subject  of  a 
consideration. 


CHAPTER  V. 

DRAINAGE. 


When  moors  are  to  be  prepared  for  tree-growth,  the 
first  step  to  accomplish  this  end  is  to  apply  drainage. 
By  this  it  is  not  intended  to  remove  all  of  the  humidity 
out  of  the  ground,  but  only  the  excess  of  water — a 
water-soaked  soil  being  detrimental  to  every  plant- 
growth. 

In  bottom-lands,  drainage  is  often  dammed  up  by  the 
high  water-table  of  adjoining  rivers,  but  the  hilly  up- 
lands afford  ample  opportunity  for  the  application  of 
this  improvement. 

In  order  to  render  the  drainage  of  a  place  or  district 
perfect,  a  careful  investigation  of  the  entire  locality 
should  be  instituted,  and  its  topography,  including  the 
courses  of  the  streams  and  rivers,  should  be  minutely 
mapped  out.  Thereupon  the  elevations  of  the  surface 
and  the  height  of  the  water-table  should  be  found  out 
and  marked  on  the  map  or  chart. 

After  the  level  of  the  place,  both  in  regard  to  its  prin- 
cipal part  and  the  adjuncts,  has  been  ascertained,  a 
system  of  drains  and  their  operation,  by  which  the 
excess  of  water  may  be  let  off,  can  be  easily  delineated. 
First,  an  appropriate  direction  has  to  be  given  to  the 
main  or  receiving  ditch.     Commonly,  this  direction  will 


DRAINAGE.  IGl 

point  to  the  more  inclined  part  of  the  place,  and  the 
outlet  will  be  the  spot  which  is  situated  lowest. 

On  most  of  extended  tracts,  we  find  empty  beds  of 
old  rivulets  or  other  water  courses.  These  are  the  best 
guides  for  ascertaining  the  natural  level  of  the  place. 
However,  the  site  and  run  of  the  river,  stream  or  other 
channel,  into  which  the  principal  ditch  is  supposed  to 
pass  oft'  its  contents,  is  the  decisive  moment  in  settling 
the  question  of  the  direction  of  this  ditch.  If  feasible, 
the  direction  should  be  the  straiglitest  jjossible,  not  only 
for  the  sake  of  saving  territory  and  labor,  but  because 
the  flow  of  water  is  then  less  damaging  to  the  slopes  of 
the  ditch  than  when  checked  by  curvatures  and 
windings. 

In  order  to  determine  upon  the  width  and  depth  of 
the  main  ditch,  the  quantity  of  water  which  runs  over 
the  place  not  only  during  summer  time,  but  also  during 
floods  and  in  wet  seasons  must  be  ascertained.  Finally, 
an  examination  of  the  quality  of  the  soil,  especially  in 
regard  to  its  different  layers,  ingredients,  water-table, 
porosity,  etc.,  must  be  made,  because  the  correct  laying 
out  of  the  trenches  depends  for  the  most  part  upon 
these  considerations. 

In  planning  out  the  particulars  of  a  drainage  system 
for  moors  there  should  not  only  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion the  best  way  to  let  off  the  water,  and  to  prevent 
forever  the  degeneration  of  moors  into  swamps,  but 
also  the  means  to  stop  the  outflow  during  the  dry  sea- 
sons at  will.  If  the  subsoil  be  sandv,  a  deepening  of 
the  level  of  the  ground  water  sometimes  becomes  highly 
objectionable  because  the  vegetation  in  such  case,  dur- 
ing a  dry  season,  will  not  be  so  sufficiently  developed  as 
it  would  be  if  the  necessary  humidity  of  the  soil  were 
retained. 

Usually  forest-trees  thrive  where  the  land   extends 


162  FOREST   PLANTING. 

from  three  to  four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
water,  altliough  a  great  many  trees  send  their  roots 
much  deeper  into  the  soil.  But  if  the  moor  is  very 
spongy  and  porous,  there  exists  such  a  capillary  attrac- 
tion of  the  ground  water  up  to  the  overlaying  soil,  that 
with  the  lowering  of  the  water-table  to  the  stated  depth, 
the  necessary  drainage  and  percolation  of  air  through 
the  soil  cannot  be  obtained.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable 
to  lay  the  main  ditch,  if  possible,  deep  enough  so  as  to 
bring  the  water-table  to  a  level  with  the  solid  subsoil. 
The  danger  that  the  surface  soil,  by  this  arrangement, 
may  be  rendered  too  dry  will  be  avoided,  as  hereinbe- 
fore stated,  by  the  erection  of  proper  devices  for  stop- 
ping the  flow  of  water  at  will. 

The  main  ditch  should  be  laid  out  in  the  deepest 
places  of  the  longitudinal  fall  of  the  area,  and  into  this 
ditch  the  side-ditches  open  so  as  to  discharge  their  water 
at  the  most  acute  angle  possible.  The  side  ditches  are 
mostly  laid  out  pretty  regular,  except  if  springs  or 
other  aqueous  spots  should  be  found  for  the  drainage  of 
which  special  trenches  should  be  opened.  If  the  area 
to  be  drained  extends  more  in  breadth  than  in  length, 
especially  if  the  middle  part  contains  an  elevation  run- 
ning straight  through  the  middle  and  is  sloping  on 
both  sides  of  the  centrum  of  the  area,  no  side  ditches 
are  required,  but  only  several  longitudinal  ditches,  run- 
ning parallel  or  nearly  so  with  the  main  ditch,  may  be 
opened,  provided  they  are  situated  so  near  to  each  other 
as  to  drain  off,  completely,  the  water  of  the  land  lying 
between  them. 

The  number  of  side  ditches  depends  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  the  water  to  be  drained  off  and  the  condition  of 
the  soil,  while  the  depth  of  the  ditches  depends  upon 
the  elevation  of  the  soil  and  the  quantity  of  water  to 
be  carried  by  the  ditch.     Owing  to  the  pressure  exer- 


DRAINAGE.  1G3 

cised  by  the  surrounding  soil  upon  the  sides  of  the 
ditches,  danger  exists  of  the  embankments  sliding  down 
and,  ere  long,  to  fill  up  the  ditches.  For  this  reason  the 
sides  of  the  ditches  have  to  slope  at  an  angle  of  about 
35°  from  the  horizontal,  whether  the  soil  may  consist 
of  sand,  clay  or  loam.  For,  although  the  soil  of  the 
last-named  kind  stands  for  a  while  firm,  if  the  sides  of 
a  ditch  are  all  perpendicular,  the  drying  effect  of 
the  air  upon  the  sides  is  such  as  to  soon  remove  every 
tenacity  out  of  the  soil,  and  make  it  crumble  down  into 
the  ditch. 

The  slope  of  ditches  in  moors  with  tenacious  soil 
used  to  be  from  15°  to  30°  from  the  perpendicular;  with 
loose  soil  45°  ;  and  if  there  is  reason  to  assume  that  the 
quantity  of  water  carried  through  will  be  very  large 
and  rapid,  a  slope  of  60°  to  70°  is  to  be  given.  The 
base  of  the  ditches  is  commonly  as  vi^ide  as  the  ditch  is 
deep,  unless  the  locality,  especially  the  elevation  of  the 
soil,  renders  a  change  necessary.  From  the  depth,  the 
width  of  the  base  and  the  pitch  of  the  sides  it  is  easy  to 
compute  the  amount  of  area  occupied  by  the  ditch.  It 
is  of  great  importance  to  establish  a  uniform  grade  of 
descent  in  the  slope  of  the  ditches.  The  larger  the  bulk 
of  the  water  is  which  has  to  pass  off,  the  greater  the 
force  of  the  water  in  the  duct  (or  conduit)  becomes,  and 
the  less  the  gradual  fall  should  be,  especially  in  loose 
soils  ;  otherwise  the  bottom  and  slopes  of  the  ditches 
will  be  exposed  to  the  danger  of  washing  out.  In  case 
the  natural  descent  should  be  too  steep  and,  therefore, 
encroachments  upon  the  slopes  are  apprehended,  it  is 
necessary  to  interrupt  the  descent  from  time  to  time, 
and  to  establish  little  rajjids  in  the  ditches  at  the  foot 
of  which  a  new  grade  commences.  But  this  operation 
seldom  occurs  in  the  plains;  it  is  aj)plied  mostly  in  hilly 
regions. 


164  FOREST  PLANTING. 

lu  large,  extended  plains  a  fall  of  1.6000  may  be  suf- 
ficient for  a  regular  flow  of  the  water  ;  usually  the  pro- 
portion of  1.2000  is  considered  desirable  for  the  proper 
discharge  of  the  water,  and  in  smaller  ditches  even  a 
greater  fall  may  be  given  without  danger  of  injury  to 
the  base  or  sides  of  the  ditches. 

The  transverse  ditches  which  discharge  their  water 
into  the  main  ditch  should  have  the  least  possible  fall, 
because,  if  thus  constructed,  they  can  easily  be  shut  up 
whenever  required  and  the  water  therein  retained  during 
a  dry  season.  Usually  they  are  so  planned  that  during 
the  wet  seasons  they  discharge  the  water  at  a  proper 
depth,  while  during  the  dry  summer  seasons,  the  water 
in  the  main  ditch  is  stopped  and  forced  to  flow  back  into 
the  lateral  ditches,  in  order  to  furnish  the  soil  with  the 
necessary  moisture.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  sandy 
soils. 

The  above  suggestions  may  be  sufficient  for  guidance 
in  draining  smaller  areas,  and  where  no  great  local  dif- 
ficulties have  to  be  overcome.  However,  where  the  proj- 
ect assumes  larger  dimensions,  and  the  obstacles  to  be 
surmounted  are  of  more  than  usual  magnitude,  an  ex- 
pert should  be  called  in  for  surveying,  mapping  and 
laying  out  the  field,  while  the  employer  will  be  greatly 
assisted  by  the  rules  hereinbefore  given  to  ascertain  that 
the  planning  and  execution  of  the  work  will  prove 
satisfactory. 


BUENING    OVER  THE   SOIL   FOR   CULTIVATION.       165 

CHAPTER  VI. 

BURNING    OVER  THE   SOIL   FOR   CULTIVATION. 

There  does  not  exist  any  mode  of  cultivating  the 
soil  which  the  agriculturist  despises  more  than  that 
which  is  done  by  burning  over  the  surface  ground.  And 
yet  there  is  no  means  by  which  the  natural  or  wild 
moors  may  be  brought  into  the  proper  condition  for 
growing  upon  them  forest-trees  more  cheaply  and 
quickly  than  just  this  primitive  operation.  We,  there- 
fore, maybe  permitted  to  treat  upon  this  subject  a  little 
more  extensively. 

After  the  moor  has  been  sufficiently  drained,  beds 
about  fifty  feet  wide  are  laid  out  and  enclosed  with 
ditches  twelve  inches  deep.  In  the  fall  or  early  winter, 
preceding  the  burning,  the  rugged  surface  soil  is  broken 
up  with  a  hand  hoe,  the  iron  of  which  should  be 
tapering  and  curved  on  the  inside.  By  this  action  the 
peaty  tufts  become  inverted  and  the  top  soil  assumes  a 
pretty  even  form.  During  the  ensuing  winter  the  frost 
acts  upon  the  clods  making  them  more  friable.  In 
the  next  spring  the  Avork  of  hoeing  over  the  surface  is 
repeated  for  the  effect  of  pulverizing  the  clods  thor- 
oughly, and  of  making  the  top  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
moor  as  even  as  possible,  whereby  the  laborers  are  in- 
structed to  work  the  soil  so  as  to  make  a  little  ridge  in 
the  middle  of  the  beds  in  order  that  the  atmospheric 
moistures  may  flow  off  more  quickly.  Thereupon  the 
moor  is  allowed  to  rest  several  weeks  till  the  surface  has 
become  thoroughly  dry.  After  this  the  ground  is  often 
worked  with  a  liand  harrow— for  working  with  farm 
animals  would  be  impossible  upon  such  a  light  and 
spongy   soil — till  the  top  becomes    fully  dried    to  the 


166  FOREST  PLANTING. 

depth  of  about  eight  inches.  On  a  warm,  sunny  day  in 
early  summer  burning  over  the  peaty  ground  begins, 
and  for  that  purpose  little  heaps  of  the  lightest  and  dry- 
est  soil,  in  distances  of  from  forty  to  fifty  feet,  are  raked 
up  and  kindled  in  such  a  way  that  the  heaps  lying  to 
the  windward  are  ignited  first.  When  these  heaps  are 
fairly  burning,  panfuls  of  the  burning  soil  are  taken  up 
and  the  ignited  turf  is  scattered  all  over  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  heaps  till  the  whole  area  is  on  fire.  The  op- 
eration is  generally  done  during  the  noontime,  when  Avind 
and  heat  are  strong,  and  in  such  manner  that  the  opera- 
tor commences  kindling  from  that  part  of  the  moor 
which  is  situated  in  the  face  of  the  wind,  working  up 
his  way  against  the  wind.  In  doing  so  the  fire  pene- 
trates from  three  to  four  inches  into  the  soil  and  leaves 
an  ash  layer  of  the  same  thickness.  As  soon  as  the 
fire  has  done  its  woi'k  and  the  smoke  is  cleared  away, 
the  best  we  can  do  to  make  the  moor  pay  for  the  ex- 
penses caused  by  this  culture,  is  to  soav  buckwheat  even 
upon  the  warm  ashes,  as  this  grain,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, may  yield  the  richest  crop  ever  harvested. 
The  best  time  of  sowing  is  at  the  end  of  May.  The 
sowing  is  done  by  hand,  whereupon  Avith  a  light  hand 
harrow,  the  grain  is  covered  and  rolled  over  by  a  hand 
roller.  Early  in  fall,  when  most  of  the  buckwheat  ker- 
nels have  turned  black,  the  crop  is  cut  and  left  in  the 
field  in  swaths  until  dry  enough  to  be  put  into  little 
heaps,  which,  when  perfectly  dry,  are  placed  in  the 
barn. 

Every  spring  during  the  next  three  years,  the  ditches 
should  be  deepened  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  sur- 
face soil  is  lowered  by  the  burning,  in  order  to  keep  the 
ditches  at  a  uniform  depth  of  about  twelve  inches;  and 
the  moor  should  be  worked  with  a  common,  perforated 
hand  hoe  and  burnt  over  again.      Buckwheat  will  still 


BUKNING   OVER  THE   SOIL   FOR   CULTIVATION.      1G7 

be  the  most  profitable  crop,  paying  nearly  all  the  ex- 
penses that  have  been  incurred  for  the  improvement. 
The  moor  will  then  be  in  such  a  condition  as  to  produce 
for  several  years  a  crop  of  oats  or  rye  ;  but  it  is  best 
not  to  exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil  too  much,  and 
rather  let  it  rest  and  enter  upon  a  fallow  of  several 
years,  after  which  forest-planting  may  be  commenced 
successfully.  At  all  events,  the  soil,  by  the  several 
burnings  and  cultivatings,  will  be  chemically  so  much 
changed  that  its  obnoxious  ingredients  are  destroyed, 
and  components  favorable  for  plant-growth  which  for- 
merly were  locked  up,  become  unlocked  and  efficient. 
Precautions  have,  however,  to  be  taken  not  to  burn  too 
deep  into  the  moor-ground,  because  only  the  heath  plan- 
tation should  be  destroyed,  while  the  underlying  inac- 
tive elements  which  originated  from  the  decayed  aquatic 
plants  will  be  brought  into  use  by  the  drainage.  For  this 
reason  the  fires  should  run  over  the  top  soil  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and,  therefore,  the  ignition  be  made  Avhen 
the  weather  is  very  dry  and  fresh  winds  are  blowing.  It 
is  true  that  then  the  ashes  are  lost,  but  the  residue  of 
the  coals  is  what  stimulates  the  vitality  of  the  underly- 
ing soil.  In  order  to  prevent  damages  which  may  occur 
when  the  fire  penetrates  too  deep  into  the  earth  it  is 
advisable  to  close  the  ditches  so  as  to  keep  the  water- 
table  up  to  a  desired  height. 


168  FOREST   PLANTING. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

FOREST    PLANTING   ON    SAND-WASTES    OR   PINE-BARRENS. 

In  our  State  Ave  have  many  varieties  of  sandy  soils, 
which  contain  principally  silicates,  without  a  proper 
admixture  of  the  other  minerals  (clay,  lime,  potash) 
necessary  for  a  thrifty  vegetable  growth.  Moreover  the 
mechanical  texture  of  such  grounds  is  entirely  unquali- 
fied to  retain  humidity,  as  this  either  disappears  by 
evaporation  or  by  sinking  into  the  depths  of  the  soil, 
where  it  is  inaccessible  to  the  roots  of  plants.  The  only 
way  to  utilize  such  lands  is  to  grow  forest-trees  upon 
them,  as  experience  shows  us  that  upon  soils  containing 
nearly  ninety-eight  per  cent,  pure  sand  and  almost  no 
water  *  pines  and  oaks  may  be  successfully  grown,  unless 
climate  and  situation  prevent  the  growth  of  any  plant- 
vegetation. 

In  the  European  territories  most  of  the  sand-wastes, 
excepting  blowing  sands,  are  covered  with  a  mat  of 
heaths,  whins  and  brooms,  through  which  water  pene- 
trates but  sparsely  into  the  ground.  This  mat  which  is 
from  three  to  five  inches  deep,  usually  rests  upon  an 
impenetrable  stratum,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  thick, 
which  consists  of  sand  cemented  by  calcareous  and  vege- 
table matter  or  by  iron  oxide.  This  hard-pan  or  heath- 
pan,  in  Germany  called  "  Orstein,"  which  is  formed  by 
acidification  of  the  subsoil,  and  is  underlaid  with  sand, 
must  first  be  broken,  and  the  broken  pieces  must  be 
brought  to  the  surface  in  order  that  the  air  may  desoxide 
them  and  remove  the  elements  obnoxious  to  plant-growth 
contained  therein.     After  this  has  been  effected,  plant- 

*  The  far-famed  forest  of  Fontaiaebleau,  in  France,  is  grown  on  just 
such  kind  of  soil. 


PLANTING  ON  SAND-AVASTES  OR  PINE-BARRENS.     169 

ing  can  be  begun.  But  as  this  kind  of  soil  is  not  often 
met  with  in  our  State,  we  will  leave  it  out  of  further 
consideration,  and  turn  to  the  common  sand-wastes,  of 
which  there  are,  as  the  census  of  1880  says,  several  mill- 
ions of  acres. 

In  order  to  bring  the  sand-wastes  proper  (excepting 
the  blowing  or  shifting  or  drifting  sands)  in  a  condition 
adapted  for  raising  tiees  upon  them,  the  soil  should  re- 
ceive one  deep  plowing  in  the  fall  preceding  the  plant- 
ing, and,  after  being  harrowed,  should  be  left  untouched 
during  the  ensuing  winter.  Early  in  spring,  planting 
or  seeding — as  the  cultivator  may  have  decided  upon — 
can  be  commenced. 

Regarding  the  selection  of  the  trees  to  be  planted, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  pine  will  be  the  dominant 
species.  But  as  in  sandy  soils  constant  protection  of 
the  ground  against  the  drying  influences  of  sun  and 
wind  has  to  be  principally  aimed  at;  and  as  the  pine, 
after  a  growth  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  years,  loses  its  side 
branches,  with  which  it  effects  this  protection,  spruce, 
oak  and  even  beeches  should  be  mixed  in  the  proportion 
of  one-fifth  of  spruces,  and  of  one-tenth  of  oaks  and 
beeches.  In  case  seedlings  are  set  out,  it  is  easy  to  de- 
termine upon  the  proper  place  for  each  tree.  But  when 
the  ground  is  to  be  seeded — and,  over  large  areas,  sowing 
is  by  far  cheaper  and  more  quickly  accomplished, 
although  it  is  not  so  sure  during  the  first  growing  period 
of  the  seedliiigs — furrows  have  to  be  opened,  in  which 
the  nuts  of  oaks  and  beeches  are  sown,  whereupon  the 
field  should  be  harrowed  even.  Then  the  pine  and 
spruce  seed  is  sown  broadcast  and  lightly  harrowed 
under.  On  very  light  soil  this  operation  has  the  effect 
of  causing  the  several  kinds  of  trees  to  spring  up  easily 
and  to  continue  growing  until  first  the  beech,  then  the 
oak,  and  finally  the  spruce  disappears  for  want  of  plant- 


170  FOREST   PLANTING. 

food;  while  the  pine  remains  as  the  stock  of  standard 
trees.  On  the  better  sandy  soils,  containing  a  larger 
amount  of  clay,  lime,  etc.,  the  pine  is  destined  to  pre- 
serve the  humidity  of  the  soil,  and  to  protect  its  co- 
plants  against  sun  and  wind.  In  this  case,  therefore, 
the  management  should  be  so  directed  as  to  eliminate 
the  evergreens  as  soon  as  the  deciduous  trees  have 
reached  the  proper  age  and  condition  that  will  enable 
them  to  shift  for  themselves  in  light  soil,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  constantly  protect  the  soil  against  sun  and 
wind.  For  such  kind  of  ground  preserves  its  increasing 
fertility  only  when  contimialhj  protected  against  atmo- 
spheric influences,  whereas  a  removal  of  the  trees  and 
the  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  effects  of  sun  and  air 
make  the  recovered  fertility  of  the  ground  disappear 
very  soon.  Conclusive  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this  as- 
sertion is  furnished  by  the  ji resent  condition  of  the 
"Landes  of  Sologne,"  in  France,  a  barren  sand-waste 
of  100,000  acres,  only  interrupted  by  marshes  and 
swamps.  And  yet  history  tells  us  that  these  "Landes" 
formerly  were  covered  with  a  dense  forest.  Avarice  and 
imprudence  of  men  cleared  the  woods  away,  and  the 
"  Landes  "  relapsed  into  what  was  their  original  condi- 
tion. Therefore,  care  must  be  taken  to  at  once  replant 
vacancies  and  glades  with  oaks,  beeches,  hornbeams,  etc., 
at  small  distances  apart — from  four  to  six  feet;  and  to 
renew  stunted  or  damaged  single  trees  by  strong  seed- 
lings. Openings  in  plantations  of  very  light  soil  should 
be  filled  out  with  spruces. 

It  is,  therefore,  justly  contended  that  sand-Avastes  can 
be  reclaimed  by  sylviculture,  because  they  obtain  thereby 
a  fertility  which  afterwards  enables  them  to  produce 
grain  for  some  time.  As  soon  as  this  fertility  has  given 
out,  we  have  it  in  our  power  to  regain  the  lost  fertility 
by  reforesting  the  sand-wastes. 


PLANTING  ON  INLAND  SAND-DRIFTS.  171 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

FOREST   PLANTING   ON  INLAND  SAND-DRIFTS. 

The  difficulties  which  have  to  be  overcome  in  order 
to  aforest  sand-wastes  or  pine-barrens,  are,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  preceding  chapter,  not  inconsiderable.  And 
yet  they  will  be  still  greater  and  nearly  insurmount- 
able when  sand-drifts  or  blowing  sands  are  to  be 
brought  into  a  condition  which  shall  render  them  suit- 
able for  sylviculture.  In  general  there  are  two  different 
phases  in  which  sand-drifts  are  met  with.  One  form  is 
that  ot  bm-ren  plains  in  the  interior  of  our  State,  an- 
other that  of  the  downs  or  dunes,  that  is:  the  shifting 
hillocks  upon  the  sea  coast.  Undoubtedly  the  former 
have  been  in  times  long  past  fixed  naturally  by  arbor- 
eous growth;  while  the  sand-drifts  on  the  sea  coast  never 
have  been  covered  with  any  substantial  vegetation. 

The  inland  sand-drifts  can  be  brought  into  cultivation 
after  the  mobile  sand  on  the  surface  of  the  barren  plains 
has  been  bound  or  fixed.  This  operation  is  accomplished 
by,  first,  making  the  ground  as  even  as  possible,  and 
then  laying  over  it  in  a  chessboard-like  way,  sods  taken 
from  old  pastures  or  peatbogs,  whereupon  the  whole 
tract — both  the  covered  and  the  uncovered  part  of  it — 
is  seeded  down  with  grasses  which  check  the  extension 
of  shifting  sands.  Especially  recommendable  for  this 
purpose  are :  arundo  arenaria,  clymus  arenaria  and  other 
grasses  growing  upon  dunes.  These  grasses  send  their 
roots  deeply  into  the  loose  soil,  consolidate  the  sand  with 
their  roots  and  rootlets,  prevent  its  drifting  and  render 
it,  during  an  undisturbed  growth  of  several  years,  so  com- 
pact that  trees,  which  are  content  with  poor  soil,  may 


172  FOREST   PLANTING. 

safely  be  grown  there.  Common  juniper  is  the  tree  gen- 
erally planted  to  protect  that  side  of  the  wood  area 
which  is  principally  exposed  to  strong  winds.  Other  use- 
ful trees  are  the  Canadian  poplar,  some  pines  as  the  pitch 
pine,  scrub  pine,  Scotch  pine,  some  acacias,  and  even 
some  oaks  and  birches  may  be  used  as  an  admixture. 
The  leading  tree  should  be  the  Scotch  pine,  the  plant- 
ing of  which  is  commonly  done  by  setting  out  three- 
year  old  plants  with  the  balls.  If  one-year  old  seed- 
lings are  used  they  should  be  planted  close  to  the  north 
side  of  the  adjoining  sod  in  order  that  the  sun  during  the 
hot  summer  months  cannot  so  easily  penetrate  through 
the  soil,  and  dry  up  the  roots  of  the  young  plants. 

The  most  successful  attempts  for  bringing  inland  sand 
wastes  into  such  a  condition  as  to  use  them  either  as  for- 
est-grounds or  as  grain-bearing  fields,  have  been  made  in 
France  with  the  sandy  "  Landes  "  of  Gascony  and  of  the 
Gironde.  These  sand-wastes,  containing  several  millions 
of  acres  poor  sand  land,  from  one,  to  one-and-a-half  feet 
deep,  with  shifting  sand  at  the  top  and  resting  upon  an 
impermeable  layer  of  hard-pan,  were  about  forty  years 
ago,  during  the  summer  time,  great  deserts;  and  during 
the  winter  overflown,  with  water.  They  could  only  sup- 
port a  very  small  population,  living  on  the  scant  revenue 
derived  from  little  flocks  of  poorly  fed  sheep.  At  the 
present  time  they  are  covered  either  with  splendid  pine 
and  oak  forests  or  with  grain-bearing  fields.  This  has 
been  accomplished  by  first :  draining  off  the  stagnant 
water  and  then :  sowing  some  of  the  above-named  grasses, 
the  grounds  became  in  due  time  quite  compact.  They 
were  then  in  such  a  condition  that  sowing  and  respect- 
ively planting  pines  in  combination  with  other  trees  as 
red  oak,  post  oak,  birch  and  chestnuts  could  be  under- 
taken. The  first  two  named  kinds  of  trees  succeeded 
especially  well ;  they  furnish  now  the  material  required 


PLANTING  ON  INLAND   SAND-DRIFTS.  173 

by  the  two  provinces  for  tanning  purposes  and  for  coop- 
erage. On  some  of  these  lands  agriculture  is  also  suc- 
cessfully practiced,  but  this  was  only  feasible  by  intro- 
ducing a  rotation  in  which  sylviculture  plays  a  promi- 
nent part.  The  farms  are  all  kept  in  wood,  and  after 
they  have  thus  been  brought  into  a  fertile  state,  a  part 
of  the  wood  is  cut  down,  made  areable  and  cultivated  for 
a  period  of  from  10  to  15  years.  The  then  exhausted 
area  is  again  planted  with  forest-trees,  and  after  the  lapse 
of  about  13  years  again  turned  over  to  agriculture.  So  the 
inventive  genius  of  modern  times  has  assisted  Europe, 
in  repairing  the  damage  done  by  the  nefarious  action  of 
improvident  and  avaricious  people,  as  history  shows 
that  four  hundred  years  ago  those  "  Landes  "  were  cov- 
ered with  dense  forests,  interspersed  with  many  flour- 
ishing farms  and  villages. 

With  the  increasing  population  of  our  State  and  the 
(alarming)  decrease  of  the  principal  trees  from  which 
tanning  material  has  been  hitherto  derived,  there  should 
the  reclaiming  of  the  many  millions  of  barren  acres, 
both  in  our  State  and  the  neighboring  States  through 
forest  planting  not  longer  be  delayed.  It  is  proven  be- 
yond any  doubt,  that  tree  culture  even  upon  such 
waste  lands  as  are  entirely  unadapted  to  agriculture — 
see  Chapter  IV.,  p.  158; — Chapter  precedent — is  prof- 
itable, and  that  it  is  a  sure  and  valuable  investment.  It 
is  true  that  landowners  will  not  be  inclined  to  interest 
themselves  in  the  establishment  of  high  forests  and  wait 
from  80  to  100  years  for  earning  the  fruits  of  their  labors; 
and  even  middle  forests,  which  require  a  term  of  from  40 
to  50  years  for  their  exploitation,  will  not  be  attractive 
to  them,  but  coppice-cultures  with  cutting  periods  of 
from  12  to  15  years  will  always,  besides  improving  poor 
soils,  be  desirable  and  well-paying  operations.  By  select- 
ing the  proper  species  among  our  oaks,  acacias,  ashes, 


174  FOREST  PLANTING. 

poplars,  willows,  etc.,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  start  a 
coppice-wood  which,  will  Avithin  a  term  of  10  or  15 
years,  furnish  material  not  only  for  the  tanner,  but  also 
for  the  cooper  and  the  paper  maker. 

The  continual  treatment  of  woods  as  coppices  is  not 
quite  natural,  and  cannot  be  fully  maintained,  unless 
the  trees  to  which  such  repeated  exploitations  cause 
death  (oaks)  are  sometimes  replaced  by  seedlings. 
When  for  one  reason  or  the  other,  especially  through  ex- 
haustion of  the  soil,  these  replacements  become  imprac- 
ticable, there  remains  but  one  remedy,  that  is  to  give  up 
the  copse  culture  and  substitute  for  foliaged  trees  coni- 
fers. These  will  grow  well  on  lands  on  which  the 
former  cannot  live,  and  bring  the  soil  to  such  a  degree 
of  fertility,  that  it  may  later  be  used  for  agricultural 
purposes. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


COVERING  SAND  DUNES  ON  THE   SEA  COAST  WITH 
TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

"When  the  sand  in  the  ocean  is  washed  up  by  the  surf, 
it  dries  on  the  beach  and,  in  this  condition,  is  carried 
inland  by  the  wind  and  piled  up  in  hills.  The  little 
mineralic  grains  of  which  the  sand  consists,  and  which, 
at  the  surface  of  the  beach,  for  want  of  sufficient  means 
to  arrest  them,  are  continually  in  an  unsettled  condition, 
will  be  easily  by  the  winds,  brought  into  a  landward 
motion,  covering  up,  in  due  time,  vast  fertile  tracts  of 
land  with  sterile  stuff.  In  Europe,  there  are  made,  on 
several  places,  the  strongest  efforts  to  reclaim  millions 
of  acres,  which  thus  had  been,  from  the  most  fertile 


COVERING   SAND   DUNES   ON   THE   SEA   COAST.        175 

fields,  converted  into  sand-wastes.  The  most  remark- 
able case  known  is  the  Tidswilde  llegn  (forest)  situated 
at  the  north  coast  of  the  Danish  island  "Seeland."  This 
island  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  sjDots  on  the  earth,  con- 
taining a  soil  which  produces  the  best  grain  and  the 
finest  forests,  composed  of  beeches  and  oaks.  The  north 
coast  of  the  island  is  ex230sed  to  strong  winds,  which  carry 
enormous  masses  of  sea-sand  to  the  coast,  forming  there 
great  hillocks.  Uj)  to  four  hundred  years  ago,  forests  of 
foliaged  trees  extended  behind  these  hillocks,  and  arrested 
the  flying  sand  so  that  the  fertile  land  lying  behind 
the  forests  Avere  Jiot  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  sand. 
But,  since  then,  the  woods,  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Government,  came  into  private  hands  and  were 
ruined  by  excessive  fellings  so  that,  two  hundred  years 
later,  the  blowing  sand  had  moved  several  miles  inland, 
covering  whole  villages  and  towns  with  powdered  quartz- 
grains,  to  the  depth  of  several  feet.  One  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago,  the  Danish  Government,  in  order  to  pro- 
tect this  beautiful  island  from  complete  ruin,  com- 
menced operations  to  confine  the  shifting  sand  to  the 
north  coast,  and  to  cover  its  sandy  surface  with  forest- 
trees.  This  has  been  done  so  successfully  that,  at  pres- 
ent, fine  beech  and  oak  forests  are  grown  where,  two 
hundred  years  ago,  several  feet  of  sand  were  piled  up. 

However,  we  need  not  to  go  to  Europe  in  order  to  see 
the  damages  done  by  the  shifting  sands  of  the  dunes, 
when  the  natural  protection  of  the  coasts,  the  forest- 
growth  has  disappeared.  We  have  the  same  spectacle 
before  us  on  the  coasts  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey. 
At  the  south  side  of  Long  Island  there  were,  some  thirty 
years  ago,  pine  forests  behind  the  dunes,  which,  Avith  the 
increasing  improvements  on  Coney  Island,  Rockaway 
Beach,  etc.,  have  been  felled.  Since  that  tin.e,  the  wind 
commenced  to  carry  the  sea-sand  into  the  interior  of  the 


176  FOREST    PLANTING. 

island,  and  now  farmers  living  four  miles  distant  from 
the  coast  complain  that  the  sand  borne  inland  by  the 
wind  increases  from  year  to  year  upon  their  fields,  and 
threatens  to  bury  entire  farms  in  the  course  of  time.  To 
arrest  these  effects,  scientific  forestry  teaches  us,  first,  to 
prevent  the  shifting  of  the  sand  on  the  surface  of  the 
dunes;  and  then  to  bind  the  loose  soil  so  as  to  be  able 
to  bear  grasses,  shrubs  and  later  on,  trees.  Although 
the  dunes  consist  of  the  most  infertile  and  mobile  sand, 
they  have  the  peculiarity  of  absorbing  and  retaining, 
especially  in  their  elevated  parts,  much  humidity;  and 
this  peculiarity  helps  us  greatly  to  control  the  drifting 
sand  ridges,  by  covering  them  with  herbaceous  and,  even 
with  forest-growth,  thus  permanently  binding  them. 

Among  the  European  nations,  there  is  none  that  has 
done  more  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  blowing  sands, 
and  to  reclaim  such  wastes  than  France.  The  arresting 
and  reclaiming  of  the  sand  dunes  along  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  in  the  Departments  of  Gascony  and  Gironde  is  a 
work  which  nowhere  has  been  executed  with  more  skill 
and  success.  In  consideration  of  the  growing  import- 
ance of  this  subject  in  relation  to  our  State,  it  may  not 
be  out  of  the  way  to  describe  the  particulars  of  this 
operation  a  little  more  minutely. 

The  operations  for  arresting  the  destructive  effects  of 
the  invasion  of  the  sea-sand  consist  of  (1)  the  erection 
of  palisades  along  the  coast,  by  which  the  dunes  situ- 
ated in  the  rear  are  protected  from  the  attacks  of  the 
sea-wind  and  from  being  exposed  to  increased  sand- 
drifts  and  sand  deposits  ;  (2)  the  work  proper,  for 
binding  the  sand-dunes  by  aforestation. 

1.  The  magnitude  of  a  performance  of  this  kind 
renders  it  necessary  to  operate  in  instalments.  Usually 
the  place  to  be  worked  extends  in  length  from  4,000  to 
5,000  feet,  and  in  depth  ox  width  fibqut  1,000  feet.     In 


covekinCt  sakd  dunes  on  the  sea  coast.     177 

front  of  this  place  a  palisade  of  planks  is  erected  par- 
allel to  the  shore,  about  300  feet  distant  from  the  high- 
est water-mark.  The  planks,  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
long,  are  sunk  in  the  sand  to  a  depth  of  about  18  inches, 
a  space  of  one  inch  being  left  between  them.  The  sand 
arrested  by  the  palisade  forms,  in  due  time,  an  artificial 
dune,  sloping  towards  the  sea,  with  the  destination  to 
prevent  fresh  arrivals  of  sand  from  being  blown  over 
the  place  to  be  cultivated.  The  sand  which  passes 
through  the  interstices  of  the  palisades,  banks  up  behind 
them,  and  strengthens  the  sand  wall.  When  the  pali- 
sades, in  this  way,  are  nearly  covered  on  both  sides,  the 
planks  are,  with  the  help  of  a  lever,  lifted  up,  so  as  to 
keep  them  about  six  feet  above  the  surface,  and  thus  the 
protection  against  wind  and  sand  is  m&(\.Q  permanent. 
Sometimes  a  fence,  made  of  eight  feet  long  stakes,  be- 
tween which  strong  but  flexible  twigs  and  boughs  are 
interwoven,  is  substituted  for  the  wooden  palisades.  As 
soon  as  the  accumulated  sand  has  nearly  reached  the 
top  of  the  fence,  the  stakes  are  raised  by  a  lever  and 
interlaced  again.  These  fences,  however,  are  only  in 
less  exposed  situations  employed  instead  of  the  planks. 
2.  Thereupon  the  place  to  be  worked  is  enclosed,  at 
the  other  three  sides,  by  wattled  fences.  Leaving  a 
space,  three  yards  wide,  next  to  the  back  fence  un- 
touched, owing  to  the  fact  that  this  space  will  soon  be 
oversanded  by  the  winds  blowing  from  inland  and,  there- 
fore, unfit  for  plant  vegetation.  In  distances  of  ten  feet, 
parallel  with  the  back  fence,  towards  the  sea  furrows  are 
opened,  eighteen  inches  wide  and  twelve  inches  deep,  in 
the  midst  of  which  the  seed  of  the  maritime  pine — a 
variety  of  pinus  silvestris — is  drilled  and  covered  with  a 
little  sand,  mixed  with  powdered  artificial  manure.  At  a 
distance  of  eight  inches  from  the  middle  drill,  another 
drill  is  made,  at  each  side,  in  one  of  which  is  sown  sand- 


178  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

reed,  and  in  the  other  furze  or  gorse.  These  seeds  are 
also  covered  with  powdered  manure  and  sand,  where- 
upon the  oj)en  furrow  is  covered  with  furze  ov,  in  want 
of  this,  with  pfrieme,  heather,  buckwheat  plants,  pine 
boughs  or  seaweed.  The  boughs  are  cut  of  equal  length, 
about  ten  feet  long,  and  laid  down  in  rectangular  lines 
to  the  sea-coast,  so  that  the  thick  ends  of  the  boughs  or 
plants  are  placed  seaward,  and  the  top  of  the  following 
bough  covers  the  stem  of  the  preceding  like  shingles. 
After  the  entire  area  or  a  part  of  it  is  worked  and  cov- 
ered in  this  way,  thin  but  long  poles  are  laid  over  the 
ends  of  the  boughs  and  fastened  to  the  ground  with 
wooden  staples,  in  order  to  shelter  the  surface  and  to 
keep  the  movable  sand  in  its  place.  Under  this  cover 
the  seeds  will  germinate  and  spring  up.  Wherever 
should  be  found  steep  hill-sides  covered  with  sand-reeds 
or  sand-grasses — a  common  occurrence  near  the  cavities 
of  the  dunes — first  of  all  the  plant-growth  should  be  cut 
down  to  the  root-crowns,  otherwise  the  covering  material 
cannot  be  distributed  evenly  over  the  surface  soil  when 
seeding  is  done ;  and  then  the  place  must  be  made  some- 
what level. 

The  operations  of  the  next  year,  unless  there  is  in- 
tended a  lateral  extension,  are  directed  to  the  area  par- 
allel with  that  which  has  been  worked,  and  is  laying 
behind  it.  For  this  section  it  is  only  required  to  erect 
side  fences  and  a  back  fence,  as  the  planted  section 
forms  a  protective  wall  from  the  shifting  sea-sand. 
Should  there  be  found  some  places  within  the  dunes 
which  are  compact  and  solid,  covering  them  is  dispensed 
with,  and  seeding  is  done  in  the  usual  way  by  drilling 
in  the  seeds. 

A  simpler  and,  formerly,  more  frequently  employed 
mode  of  consolidating  the  drifting  sands  upon  the 
dunes  is  shown  in  the  following: 


COVERING  SAND  DUNES  ON  THE  SEA  COAST.  179 


Fic.  r 


'■■**'  l^'-  •.■.'•.  '•'••■••J..  .•  •  '.',\^f*^ 


Tj  >'.-:*v<nv;:  ?»•/•>•;:•.:; 


180  FOREST   PLANTING. 

After  the  place  to  be  worked  has  been  protected  in 
the  manner  heretofore  described,  by  front,  back  and 
side  fences  and  uneven  spots,  if  there  be  any,  leveled, 
the  entire  surface  is  covered  with  brushwood  or  small 
evergreen  boughs,  about  four  feet  in  length ;  and  the 
seeds  of  pines,  birches,  bushes  and  grasses  are  sown 
upon  them  broadcast.  Thereupon  the  laborers  take 
sand  from  the  adjoining  unworked  part  of  the  place, 
and  throw  at  every  two  feet  a  shovelful  over  the  brush- 
wood, thus  covering  not  only  the  seeds,  which  will,  in 
the  meantime,  have  mostly  fallen  through  the  bushes 
to  the  ground,  but  also  fastening  the  loose  brushwood 
to  the  soil. 

This  work  is  done  in  sections  of  about  three  hun- 
dred feet  long,  and  of  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  wide. 
Generally  it  is  commenced  about  three  yards  distant 
from  the  back  fence  by  children  that,  while  going 
backward  with  the  face  directed  to  the  back  fence, 
unloosen  piles  of  brushwood,  placed  in  proper  distances 
all  over  the  place,  and  distribute  them  over  their  dis- 
trict, when  the  seedsman  comes  to  release  them.  He  is 
then  followed  by  the  workingmen,  who  cover  the  place 
with  sand. 

In  the  diagram  on  the  opposite  page,  the  formation 
of  an  artificial  dune  is  shown  by  Fig.  1.  It  begins  at 
the  high-water  mark  of  the  sea,  and  gradually  rises 
when  the  wind  is  blowing  landward,  till  it  has  reached 
the  highest  pitch  at  the  top  of  the  dunes.  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  hasten  this  formation,  bundles  of  straw  or 
brushwood,  so-called  fagots,  are  stuck  into  the  beach- 
ground,  less  in  number  and  height  at  the  start  on  the 
shore,  and  more  numerous  and  taller  near  the  end  of 
the  artificial  dune. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  fenced-in  working  place,  divided  up  in 
three  sections.     One-half  of  the  first  section  is  finished 


COVERING   SAND   DUNES   ON  THE   SEA   COAST.        181 

in  the  manner  described  on  page  178,  the  other  half  is 
to  be  worked  after  the  old  mode  (see  page  179),  and  ex- 
poses to  view  the  piles  of  brushwood  set  in  a  circle  per- 
pendicularly to  the  ground,  in  order  that  the  shifting 
sands  may  not  cover  them. 

The  maritime  pine  {pinus  maritima),  which  is  of  such 
great  importance  to  southern  France,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended for  similar  operations  in  our  State,  as  it  requires 
a  warmer  climate,  such  as  that  of  California  and  the 
southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  If  exposed  to  our 
dry  and  cold  winds,  during  the  winter,  this  tree  would 
certainly  perish.  However,  we  have  among  our  pines 
some  species  which  would  fully  accomplish  upon  our 
dunes  what  the  maritime  pine  has  done  in  France,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Jersey  pine  {pinns  inops),  the  pitch 
pine  {pinus  rigicla),  the  gray  pine  or  scrub  pine,  and 
the  red  cedar  {junijjerus  virginianus).  For  binding 
the  sand-dunes  we  have  a  great  selection  of  grasses  and 
bushes,  among  which  deserve  special  notice:  beach- 
grass  {calamagrostis  arenaria),  myrtle  bush  {myrica 
cerifera),  and  such  small  creeping  vines  as  naturally 
take  root  in  the  movable  arid  sand  of  our  sea  coast. 


PART     III. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  OBJECTS  OF  COVERING   MOUNTAINS  WITH 
FOREST-TREES. 

The  aforesting  of  mountains  has  for  its  object  the 
creation  of  a  forest  vegetation,  which  should  pervade  the 
soil  with  a  net  of  numerous  roots  and  rootlets  in  order 
to  bind  the  soil,  especially  on  the  steep  slopes,  and  to 
prevent  its  dissolution  or  sliding  down  into  the  valleys 
by  heavy  i-ain  storms  which  underwash  the  surface  soil. 

The  forests  of  mountains  are  furthermore  destined  to 
furnish  to  the  lower  situated,  cultivated  parts  of  a 
country  an  effective  and  lasting  shelter  against  meteoro- 
logical influences,  especially  against  the  fury  of  strong 
winds.  AVhen  a  tempest  beats  upon  the  denuded  slopes  of 
a  mountain,  it  will  shake  the  boulders,  catch  up  the  stones 
and  overturn  isolated  trees.  These  obstacles,  far  from 
calming  the  storm,  will  redouble  its  fury;  it  will  re- 
bound and  form  in  the  valleys  tornadoes  which  devastate 
everything  that  is  lying  in  their  way.  But  when  it  strikes 
a  wooded  slope,  each  tree,  each  branch  will  bend  under 
the  force  of  the  wind,  but  will  check  its  force  by  its 
elasticity ;  the  hurricane  will  be  sifted  and  absorbed  by 
the  woods. 

But  the  principal  advantage  of  wooded  mountains 
consists  in  the  furnishing  and  regulating  of  a  continual 
flow  of  water  to  the  lower  situated  regions.  Usually  the 
surface  soil  of  mountains  is  not  very  thick  and,  there- 
fore, unable  to  retain,  for  a  long  time,  the  quantity  of 
182 


OBJECTS  OF  COVERING  MOUNTAINS  WITH  TEEES.      183 

humidity  which  falls  upon  it.  Mountains  that  are  de- 
nuded of  forests  discharge  the  mass  of  melted  snow 
which  has  been  accumulating  there  during  the  winter 
as  soon  as  the  warmth  of  the  sun  increases  in  spring. 
Then  the  waters  and  streams  rush  down  the  valleys, 
carrying  off  whatever  they  find  in  their  way,  swell  up 
the  rivulets  and  rivers  of  the  valleys,  into  which  they 
flow,  and  cause  enormous  damage  by  the  inundations 
that  follow.  But  when  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
trees,  the  surface  soil  becomes  not  only  continually  richer, 
owing  to  the  accumulation  of  leaves  under  the  trees  and, 
therefore,  able  to  support,  later  on,  more  and  stronger 
trees,  but  also  thicker,  so  as  to  absorb  and  retain  more 
moisture  than  the  old  soil  was  able  to  do.  During  the 
winter  the  soil  of  the  forests  protected  by  trees,  dead 
leaves,  mosses,  etc.,  seldom  freezes,  and  so  the  snow  under 
the  influence  of  the  warmth  of  the  earth  melts  so  slowly 
from  beneath,  that  when  the  warm  season  appears,  some- 
times still  in  the  middle  of  the  summer,  vestiges  of  ice  and 
snow  can  be  found  there.  The  consequence  of  this 
condition  of  the  ground  is  that  every  liquid  particle  is 
seized  and  in  its  course  downward  retarded.  The  for- 
mer inundations  during  spring,  followed  by  aridity  and 
low  water  in  the  navigable  rivers  during  the  summer, 
cease,  and  in  their  stead  the  discharge  of  water  from  the 
mountains  is  so  regulated  as  to  deliver  an  equal  and 
continually  well-regulated  flow.  The  conclusive  proof 
of  these  facts  is  that,  in  general,  abundant  springs  are 
almost  all  situated  at  the  foot  of  wooded  mountains  or 
hills. 

In  order  to  obtain  with  certainty  the  above-stated 
objects  of  sylviculture  upon  mountains,  there  should  be 
applied  that  form  of  forest  management  by  Avhich  the 
sustained  growth  of  standard  (fully  developed)  trees  or 
high  forests  will  be  secured.    The  so-called  coppice  man- 


184  FOEEST   PLANTING. 

agement — low  forests — by  which  the  reproduction  of 
the  trees  is  done  in  the  natural  way  of  allowing  shoots 
and  sprouts  to  grow  up  cannot  realize  the  end  aimed 
at,  although  on  many  places  the  condition  of  the  ground 
will  prevent  us  from  raising  standard  trees  in  the  usual 
way.  In  such  cases  tlie  forester  must  be  satisfied  for  a 
long  time  if  he  is  able  to  produce  a  vegetation  which  will 
simply  improve  and  respectively  increase  the  soil. 
Commonly  this  is  done  by  growing  grasses  upon  the 
poor  grounds,  and,  when  they  have  increased  the  mould, 
bushes  may  occupy  the  area,  after  which  planting  of 
forest-trees  may  be  begun,  provided  the  soil  has  attained 
sufficient  solidity  and  compactness. 


CHAPTER  II. 

RE-PLANTING   FORESTS  IN  MOUNTAINS. 

Selection    of  Trees — Planting    or    Seeding. 

Forest  vegetation  in  the  plains  depends  almost  ex- 
clusively upon  the  condition  of  the  soil  ;  but  in  the 
mountains,  besides  this,  the  climate  and  the  formation  of 
the  soil  play  an  important  part. 

By  the  spontaneous  vegetation  we  perceive  at  once 
that  with  the  vertical  elevation  of  the  mountains,  the 
temperature  of  the  air  gradually  is  decreasing.  This 
fact  proves  that  there  are  climatic  stations  of  vegetation, 
the  most  downward  of  which  corresponds  with  the  vege- 
tation in  the  plains  on  foot  of  the  mountains,  while  the 
elevated  regions  manifestly  develop  mountainous  peculi- 
arities.*   In  regard  to  forest  vegetation  the  tree-growing 

*  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  average  temperature  of  a  locality  is 
decreased  in  proportion  to  its  distance  from  the  Equator.  This  prin- 
ciple also  holds  good  in  regard  to  territorial  elevations  above  the  sea- 
level.  For  we  find  that  each  elevation  of  300  feet  above  the  sea-level 
equals,  in  regard  to  average  temperature,  a  distance  of  one  degree  (65 
miles)  northward  from  the  Equator. 


RE-PLANTING   FORESTS   IN   MOUNTAINS.  185 

territory  in  mountains,  therefore,  is  divided  into  three 
stations,  viz.: 

1.  The  temperate  station  or  mild  region,  which  in  our 
State  extends  up  to  about  1,000  feet  above  sea-level.  At 
this  point  begins 

2.  The  cool  region — middle  mountains — and  reaches 
up  to  about  3,000  feet  above  sea-level.   Thereupon  follows 

3.  The  cold  region — high  mountains — running  up- 
ward to  from  6,000  to  7,000  feet  above  sea-level. 

In  the  first  region  regularly  grow  the  same  trees 
which  we  find  in  the  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains: oak,  pine,  hickory,  black  walnut,  chestnut,  elm, 
ash,  basswood,  locust,  maple,  etc. 
j^^he  second  region  produces,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, especially  the  following  trees  :  beach,  fir, 
spruce,  hemlock,  pine,  larch,  mountain  maple,  aspen, 
willows,  etc. 

The  third  region  is  confined  to  the  crippled  and 
stunted  varieties  of  pine,  birches  and  other  hardy  trees 
and  shrubs. 

But  if  we  will  successfully  reforest  the  mountains,  we 
have  besides  the  alleged  observation  to  take  into  con- 
sideration a  great  many  other  points,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  we  will  now  briefly  discuss. 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  trees  grown  in  a  higher 
latitude  will  easily  be  raised  in  a  lower  region,  but  not 
vice  versa;  and  that  trees  of  the  same  zone  grow  better 
if  planted  more  hill  downward  than  upward. 

Moreover,  the  elevation  of  the  mountains,  the  situation 
of  the  slopes  in  regard  to  wind  and  sunshine,  have  great 
influence  upon  the  growth  of  trees.  The  sloj^es  which 
point  to  the  south  and  east  have  a  liigher  average  tem- 
perature during  the  year  than  those  which  are  exposed 
to  the  north  and  west.  In  following  up  this  natural 
disposition  it  is  possible  to  raise,  in  higher  situated  re- 


18G  FOREST   PLANTING. 

gions, trees  which  are  generally  found  only  in  lower  locali- 
ties, while  on  the  other  hand  trees  will  not  grow  in  their 
particular  region  if  exposed  to  more  than  ordinary  hard- 
shij)s,  and  that  in  such  case — as  the  forester  calls  it — 
the  trees  "  step  downward." 

Those  parts  of  the  mountain  slopes  which  are  exposed 
to  the  scorching  sun  rays  (south)  and  the  parching 
winds  (west)  suffer  often  by  the  rapid  evaporation  of 
the  moisture  contained  in  the  soil,  and,  therefore,  do  not 
favor  the  growth  of  deciduous  trees,  but  allow  only  such 
evergreens  as  are  not  so  pretentious  in  this  regard,  as 
for  instance,  pines,  cedars  and  larches. 

Sometimes  the  prevailing  Avinds,  being  either  un- 
usually cold  or  excessively  dry  or  very  wet,  change  the 
character  of  a  mountain  situation  to  the  worse  and  do 
not  permit  the  growth  of  a  vegetation  which  commonly 
thrives  there ;  while  surrounding  higher  mountains  exer- 
cise a  protecting  effect  against  such  physical  influence, 
and  often  allow  the  growth  of  trees  otherwise  entirely 
unknown  in  such  a  locality. 

The  average  humidity  of  the  air,  in  growing  forest- 
trees,  should  also  not  be  undervalued.  So,  for  instance, 
the  fir,  hemlock,  spruce,  beech,  birch,  ash  and  maple, 
grow  better  in  a  more  moist  air  than  do  pines  and  even 
oaks.  At  all  events  the  effects  of  excessive  warmth  upon 
trees  will  be  considerably  counteracted  by  an  excess  of 
moisture  in  the  currents  of  the  air. 

The  quantity  of  warmth,  light  and  humidity  received 
by  any  locality,  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  angle 
Avith  Avhich  the  sun  rays  fall  upon  the  same,  and  there- 
fore the  particular  inclination  of  the  soil  towards  the 
horizon  must  not  be  left  out  of  consideration. 

While  the  leaves  of  the  trees  feed  mostly  on  the  con- 
tents of  the  air,  the  roots  have  to  draw  their  support 
from  the  soil  in  which  they  grow.     Therefore,  in  ordet 


RE-PLANTING   FORESTS   IN   MOUNTAINS.  187 

that  trees  may  thrive,  the  quality  of  tlie  soil,  both  the 
mineral  and  physical,  should  well  be  heeded.  The  mix- 
ture of  the  soil  and  the  proj)ortions  in  which  it  con- 
tains the  principal  component  parts  of  the  soil,  viz.,  clay, 
sand  and  lime  is— as  every  farmer  knows — very  impor- 
tant. But  still  more  important  are  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  soil.  Very  favorable  conditions  are: 
depth,  friability,  moisture  and  the  capacity  of  the  soil 
for  absorbing  and  retaining  warmth  and  gases.  If  you 
find  besides  these  qualities  a  good  humus  at  the  surface, 
you  can  be  sure  to  raise  the  most  fastidious  trees.  Elm, 
maple  and  ash  require  the  best  soil.  "  Less  pretentious 
are:  oak,  beech  and  other  nut-bearing  trees,  the  bass- 
wood  or  linden,  fir,  etc.  Still  more  readily  are  satisfied : 
larch,  hemlock,  spruce,  hornbeam,  locust,  alder,  willow, 
poplar,  aspen,  cedar,  etc.,  and  the  least  demands  are 
made  by  the  pines  and  even  by  some  kinds  of  the  birch 
and  alder. 

If  in  selecting  the  kind  of  trees,  attention  is  given  to 
these  hints,  we  may  be  pretty  safe  to  successfully  grow 
forest-trees  on  a  proper  place  in  the  mountains.  But 
considering  the  very  great  difference  which  often  exists 
in  near-by  situated  mountain  localities,  we  may  still 
be  safer  in  our  selection  if  we  raise  those  kinds  which 
have  grown  with  success  before  on  that  spot  or  its 
neighborhood.  But  even  this  rule  does  not  always  hold 
good,  especially  where  an  area  for  a  long  time  has  been 
denuded  of  vegetation  and  become  barren  owing  to  the 
exposure  of  the  winds  and  the  sun.  In  such  case 
nature  often  demands  a  rotation*  in  the  kinds  of  trees, 

*  The  doctrine  of  "rotation  "  in  the  culture  of  forests  has  been  lately 
very  rudely  shaken  up  by  theoretical  reasons  as  well  as  by  pi-actical 
obsei'vations.  In  regard  to  the  former,  reference  is  had  to  the  differ- 
ence between  the  growth  of  grains  and  that  of  trees,  by  which  it  is 
claimed  that  woodlands,  through  the  undisturbed  tree-growth,  will  al- 


188  FOREST   PLANTING. 

because  the  materials  of  the  soil  on  which  the  former 
kinds  have  subsisted  were  consumed  and  the  deficiency 
in  the  soil  had  not  yet  been  made  up  by  a  natural  fal- 
low. The  poorer  the  soil  is,  and  the  more  unfavorable 
become  other  conditions  for  plant  growth,  the  more 
difficult  is  the  restoration  of  denuded  mountainous  wil- 
dernesses. In  such  case  there  is  no  other  chance  left 
but  to  make  some  judicious  trials  on  a  small  scale,  and 
if  they  turn  out  favorably,  to  act  accordingly. 

Planting  or  Seeding  ? 

The  remarks  made  in  Chapter  XIV  of  Part  I  regard- 
ing the  question  whether  we  shall  seed  or  plant,  were 
destined  to  be  applied  in  the  aforestation  of  tracts  situ- 
ated on  the  plains.  However,  they  hold  in  general  also 
good  for  mountain  districts;  and  as  plantations  are 
less  subject  to  destructive  agencies  than  seed  beds,  it  is 
the  more  advisable  to  give  planting  on  mountains  the 
preference  to  seeding,  because  the  peculiar  condition  of 
climate,  soil  and  location  on  mountains  impose  greater 

ways  be  enriched  in  fertilizing  ingredients  while  the  reverse  liolds  true 
in  agriculture,  and  therefore  a  rotation  of  crops,  which  in  a  successful 
farm  management,  appears  to  be  desirable,  can  be  dispensed  with  in 
the  renovation  of  forests.  As  for  the  observations  made  in  this 
direction,  the  natural  rotation  in  forest-growth  is  ascribed  to  natural 
causes,  as,  for  instance,  to  the  distribution  of  tree  seeds  by  winds,  by  ani- 
mals and  even  hy  currents  of  the  waters.  However  this  may  be,  the  fact 
is  undeniable  that,  provided  the  soil  is  equally  adapted  to  both  foliaged 
trees  and  conifers,  the  latter  grow  more  luxuriantly  after  the  first  have 
disappeared  than  wben  followed  by  their  own  kind,  and  vice  versa.  For 
the  Adirondack  forests  this  question  is  in  a  certain  respect  decided  by 
investigations  instituted  with  old  woodmen  whose  exi)erience,  together 
with  that  of  their  ancestors,  reaches  nearly  150  years  back.  From  these 
it  has  appeared  that  upon  the  ordinary  forest  soil  150  years  ago,  pinus 
strubus,  or  white  pine,  was  the  governing  tree,  then  followed  the 
spruce  and  lately,  foliaged  trees  such  as  oak,  beech,  maple,  ash,  birch, 
blackberry,  American  elm,  alder  and  poplar  with  intermixture  of  the 
hemlock,  seem  to  become  leading  trees. 


RE-PLANTING    FORESTS   IN   MOUNTAINS.  189 

hardships  upon  the  plant-vegetation  than  on  plains. 
For  this  reason  only  such  seedlings  should  be  selected 
for  mountain  plantations  as  exhibit  a  strong,  vigorous 
growth,  even  if  they  are  some  years  older  than  those 
usually  transplanted  on  plains. 

Moreover,  the  peculiar  physical  condition  of  moun- 
tains, esijecially  the  unevenness  of  the  surface  and  the 
steepness  of  the  slopes,  require,  sometimes,  alterations  in 
approved  modes  of  forest  cultures  on  plains.  So,  for 
instance,  when  it  is  decided  upon  to  seed  down  large 
sloping  tracts  with  tree  seed,  there  cannot  exist  much 
doubt  about  the  direction  to  be  given  to  the  seed-fur- 
rows, as  it  is  an  unalterable  rule  in  the  cultivation  of  soils 
on  declivities  to  open  furrows  only  level  horizontally. 
But  even  the  best  plowman  would  not  be  able  to  always 
follow  up  an  exact  level  direction  in  transverse  plowing. 
A  long  continued  furrow  will  soon  exhibit  irregularities 
by  which,  in  times  of  heavy  rains,  openings  will  be  caused 
in  the  furrow  through  which  not  only  the  water,  but 
also  washed  out  seeds  and  seedlings  may  be  discharged 
into  lower  localities.  The  ruts  and  grooves  thus  formed 
would  soon  increase  in  volume  and  power,  and  in  their 
further  run  down  hill  break  through  the  lower  situated 
seed  furrows  and  destroy  many  parts  of  the  plantation. 
For  this  reason  the  plowman  should,  in  distances  of  about 
G  feet,  interrupt  the  row  after  having  made  openings 
from  15  to  20  feet  long  and  the  next  following  lower 
furrow  should  be  so  arranged  that  their  openings  would 
face  the  midst  of  the  unplowed  places  above.  The 
entire  field  would  then  look  like  this : 

20  f.                     20  f.                    20  f.                    20  f. 
6  f 6  f 6  f 


20  f .                        20  f.                      20  f. 
6  f 6  f . . 

20  f.                       20  f.                       20  f.                       20  f. 
6  f 6  f 6  f 


190  FOREST   PLANTING. 

Many  alterations  of  the  rules,  given  for  tree-planting 
on  plains,  are  also,  on  mountain  sites,  rendered  necessary 
in  the  establishment  of  young  plantations.  When  hardy 
trees  are  planted  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  tender 
ones,  the  plant-rows  have  to  be  run  east-westward,  in  order 
that  the  latter  ones  are  protected  against  the  strongest 
sun  rays.  But  on  slopes  of  mountains  there  are  greater 
trials  in  store  for  young,  susceptible  trees  than  sun  rays, 
namely,  the  danger  of  being  rooted  up  by  heavy  rains 
through  the  water  running  downward.  To  prevent  this 
the  plant-rows  must  always  have  a  transverse  direction 
around  the  mountain  slopes  and  no  attention  is  given  to 
geographical  situation. 


CHAPTER  III. 


RE-STOCKING  DENUDED  WOODLANDS  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS. 
— PREPARATORY   AND    PROTECTIVE  MEASURES. 

Although,  in  the  restoration  of  the  mountain  forests, 
the  selection  of  the  proper  kind  of  trees  to  be  planted  is 
just  as  difficult  as  the  determination  upon  the  kind  of 
culture,  viz.,  whether  we  shall  plant  or  sow,  far  more 
difficult  are  the  measures  we  have  to  take,  both  in  regard 
to  the  preparations  for  beginning  the  work  of  cultiva- 
tion and  the  protection  of  the  finished  work.  In  locali- 
ties over  which  Nature  has  poured  unbounded  favors,  it 
is  easy  to  solve  this  problem  and,  therefore,  we  omit 
such  cases,  confining  ourselves  to  those  which  offer 
uncommon  difficulties,  and  showing  how  to  overcome 
them. 

Nature  works  with  small  means  to  produce  great  and, 
to  mankind,  sometimes  very  disastrous  effects.  This  is 
done  by  the  concentration  of  those  little  means,  and  by 


RE-STOCKING   DENUDED   AVOODLANDS.  191 

their  joint  operation  towards  the  final  result.  Altliougii 
man  is  unable  to  avert  such  events  entirely,  he  can  lessen 
their  ravages  by  timely  taking  up  the  battle  against  the 
single,  isolated  forces,  and  thus  prevent  their  dangerous 
combination.  This  observation  led  human  genius  to 
the  discovery  of  means  and  ways  to  moderate  the  disas- 
trous effects  of  violent  storms  upon  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  mountains,  after  avarice  or  imprudence  of  man 
had  denuded  their  summits  and  steep  slopes  of  the 
forest  vegetation,  thereby  allowing  the  formation  of  tor- 
rents which  carried  away  the  earth,  and  rendered  the 
restoration  of  the  mountain  forests  nearly  impossible. 
French  engineers  and  experts  in  forestry  matters  have, 
during  the  last  one  hundred  years,  devoted  much  time 
in  ascertaining  the  causes  of  the  origin  and  dimension  of 
the  torrents  by  which  the  washing-down  of  the  mountain 
soil  into  the  valleys  and  the  disastrous,  nearly  every 
year,  recurring  inundations  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
South  France  were  brought  about.  These  investigations 
led  to  the  following  theses,  the  correctness  of  which  is 
now  fully  established : 

1.  If  the  mountains  are  covered  with  forests,  the 
formation  of  torrents  is  impossible. 

3.  The  deforestation  of  the  mountains  surrenders  the 
soil  to  the  formation  of  torrents. 

3.  By  extending  the  forest  area,  we  do  away  with  tor- 
rents, and  promote  an  increased  formation  of  natural 
water  reservoirs. 

4.  The  disappearance  of  a  forest  redoubles  the  vehe- 
mence of  torrents,  and  even  may  resuscitate  extinct 
ones. 

We  will  now  consider  the  various  phases  in  which  the 
accumulated  mountain  waters  may  be  prevented  from 
doing  harm  to  plant  growth,  and  may  even  be  turned 
so  as  to  promote  forest  vegetation. 


192  FOREST   PLAXTIXG. 

The  Regulation  of  the  Mountain  Waters. 

It  will  be  remembered  that,  as  a  principal  requirement 
for  tree-growing  in  mountains,  we  have  before  stated 
the  necessity  of  procuring  and  retaining  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  moisture  in  the  soil.  This  requirement  is  the 
more  urgent  as  the  steep  inclination  of  the  sloj^es  makes 
the  rain  and  snow  waters  run  swiftly  over  the  surface 
without  offering  them  many  chances  to  enter  the  soil 
and  to  percolate  it.  On  the  other  hand,  we  see  how  de- 
structive the  waters  become  if  they  pour,  unchecked, 
over  the  slopes,  carrying  with  them  vast  quantities  of 
earthy  comiDonents  which  increase  the  grinding  power 
of  the  current,  wash  the  soil  from  the  mountains,  and 
leave  bare  and  sterile  rocks  behind  them.  It  is  in  such 
cases  that  man's  helping  hand  has  to  enter  the  field  and 
to  break  the  steepness  of  the  slopes,  the  cause  of  the 
rapid  ruch  and  destructive  power  of  the  waters. 

A. — Regulation  of  Rain  and  Snow  Water  on  Mountain 

Slopes. 

To  break  the  steepness  of  the  slopes,  there  have  to  be 
dug,  horizontally  running-trenches  or  ditches  of  jjroper 
depth  and  width  at  appropriate  distances,  ccmmencing 
as  near  to  the  top  as  is  deemed  necessary  to  catch  up  the 
waters,  making  them  temporarily  stagnant  and  letting 
the  excess  equally  flow  over  the  ridge  to  lower-situated 
ditches,  where  the  same  effects  are  obtained.  This  work 
will  be  done  or,  at  least,  facilitated  by  a  proper  sidehill 
plowing.  According  to  the  greater  or  less  steepness 
of  the  slope,  there  have  to  be  made  furrows  about  one 
foot  wide  and  deep,  from  six  to  seven  feet  apart;  or 
deeper  and  wider  trenches,  two  feet  by  eighteen  inches, 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  apart.  The  soil  taken  out 
of  the  furrows  or  trenches  is  deposited  right  along  the 


RE-STOCKING   DENUDED    WOODLANDS.  193 

lower  edge  of  the  furrow,  thus  forming  a  level  wall  over 
which  the  surplus  water  collected  in  the  furrow  or  trench 
will  slowly  run  downward,  to  he  caught  up  by  the  next 
furrow  below,  unless  absorbed  by  the  soil  over  which  it 
is  flowing. 

This  operation  will  be  a  great  heli?  for  raising  trees 
on  steep  slopes,  by  planting  them  in  the  middle  of  the 
ridges,  alongside  the  trenches.  Should  the  ridges  be 
larger,  and  have  more  the  shape  of  a  terrace,  it  is  advisable 
to  ojjen  in  the  middle  of  the  terrace,  a  furrow  and  plant 
therein  the  trees,  thus  forming  an  additional  obstruction 
against  the  waters  sweeping  down  into  the  lower  grounds. 
The  fast-growing  root  system  of  the  trees  and  bushes 
planted  upon  the  mellow  ridges  will  help  greatly  to 
strengthen  the  latter,  and  thus  increase  the  power  of 
resisting  the  destructive  effects  of  the  water  currents.  * 

Formerly,  running  down  the  denuded  slope,  these 
waters  began  to  wear  out  little  ruts,  then  furrows, 
gulches,  channels  and,  finally,  enlarged  in  width  and 
depth  till  they  became  enormous  torrents.  But  treated 
in  the  stated  way,  their  force  is  broken,  and  they  filter 
quietly  into  the  soil  or  flow  down,  impeded  by  so  many 
obstructions  that  they  cannot  do  harm.  The  trenches 
form  also,  during  the  winter,  receptacles  for  the  dead 
leaves  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  and,  owing  to  the  half- 
decayed   condition   of  these  leaves,  retain,  during   the 


*  This  mode  of  cultivation  of  the  soil  might  sometimes  be  used  ad- 
vautageously  to  retrieve  the  great  damages  caused  to  many  hilly  farms 
of  our  State  by  the  improvi'lence  of  former  owners  who  stripped  the 
steep  hill-sides  on  the  farm  of  their  trees,  in  order  to  enlarge  the  pas- 
tm-es.  As  such  fields  usually,  by  nature,  are  not  rich,  and  only  kept 
fertile  by  the  shade  of  the  trees  grown  thereon  and  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  their  leaves,  they  became,  when  denuded  of  trees,  infertile  and 
barren  ;  whereupon  the  loose  surface  soil  was  washed  down  by  the 
rain  into  the  lower-situated  gi-ounds,  covering  them  with  sand  and 
gravel. 


194  FOREST   PLANTING. 

spring,  the  snows  cover  much  longer  than  the  hare 
soil  would  do,  contributing,  in  this  way,  much  to  the 
most  desirable  effect  of  wooded  mountains,  viz.,  the 
retarded  melting  of  the  snow  accumulated  there  during 
the  winter. 

B. — Regulation  of  the  Rivulets  and  Brooks  in  the 
Mountains. 

Much  more  difficult  is  the  regulation  of  the  little 
rivulets,  brooks,  streamlets,  etc.,  which  originate  in  the 
mountains,  run  down  in  cavities  and,  uniting  with  other 
running  waters,  form,  during  heavy  rains,  torrents  which 
undermine  their  banks  and  carry  away  the  best  ingredi- 
ents of  the  mountain  soil  into  the  valleys.  In  such 
ease,  the  first  step  to  be  taken  must  be  to  secure  the 
banks  of  these  little  waters  against  the  eroding  force  of 
the  current  by  planting  deep-rooting  trees  and  shrubs 
upon  them  as  near  to  the  water  front  as  possible.  The 
elm,  ash  and  alder  are,  on  such  jilaces,  quick  growers  and 
will  soon  be  strong  enough  to  protect  the  banks  against 
further  incursions.  The  next  tiling  to  be  done  is  to 
break  the  force  of  the  downward-running  waters  by 
opening  furrows  at  proper  distances  apart,  commencing 
as  liigli  upward  as  is  necessary,  or  by  constructing  dams 
or  dikes  across  the  beds,  grooves  or  ravines. 

With  exceptions  such  as  are  quite  apt  to  be  required 
by  local  conditions,  the  following  are  the  main  rules  for 
properly  selecting  and  locating  the  means  of  checking 
the  rapidity  of  mountain  waters.  Upon  a  slope  of  fifteen 
yards  descent  in  the  one  hundred  {i.  e.,  15  per  cent.)  the 
water  flows  pretty  quietly  for  fifty  yards,  then  it  begins, 
according  to  the  inequalities  and  the  resistance  of  the 
soil,  to  carry  away  the  earth,  showing  by  this  the  first 
point  of  defense.     If  the  ground  is  compact,  there  is 


RE-STOCKING    DENUDED   WOODLANDS.  195 

not  much  to  fear,  but  if  it  is  light  and  exjjosed  towards 
violent  winds,  something  should  be  done  to  avert  danger. 
In  this  case,  however,  some  transverse  furrows  would  be 
sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

Upon  a  surface  inclined  twenty  yards  in  the  one  hun- 
dred (20  per  cent.),  the  water  after  running  about  forty 
yards  will  begin  to  loosen  the  soil  and,  according  to  its 
being  more  or  less  compact,  the  erosion  will  be  more  or 
less  rapid.  Then  low-turfed  earth  walls  should  be  built 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  waters,  but 
allowing  the  flow  over  the  tops  without  doing  harm. 

If  the  slope  is  one  of  twenty-five  yards  to  the  one 
hundred,  the  water  after  a  run  of  twenty-five  yards,  digs 
out  ruts  and  loosens  the  soil.  Then  hedges  or  small 
fences  should  be  erected  to  stop  the  quickened  water- 
course, and  to  allow  the  formation  of  terraces  by  the  soil 
and  cobble-stones  accumulated  behind  the  fences. 

When  the  soil  has  a  slope  of  thirty  yards  in  the  one 
hundred,  it  will  be  dug  out  by  the  water  after  an  un- 
checked flow  of  twenty  yards,  and  the  damming  up 
should  begin  at  this  point.  With  a  declivity  of  forty 
yards  in  the  one  hundred,  the  unchecked  floAV  of  water 
should  not  be  more  than  fifteen  yards,  and  upon  steeper 
slopes  the  establishment  of  terraces  should  be  more 
narrowed  down. 

The  diagrams  on  pages  196  and  197  show  the  different 
kinds  of  dams,  dikes  and  fences  which  are  to  be  built 
in  order  to  check  the  rapid  flow  of  mountain  waters. 
The  material  to  be  used  depends  much  upon  that  which 
is  found  in  localities  where  it  is  to  be  utilized. 

In  order  to  preserve  these  expensive  means,  which  are 
both  preparatory  and  protective  to  tree-growth  for  all 
times  to  come,  the  terraces  created  by  the  accumulation 
of  stones  and  earth  should  be  consolidated  by  sowing 
grasses     and     planting    quick-growing    coppice  wood. 


196 


FOREST   PLANTING. 


CROSS-SECTION   OF   A   WOOUEJf    WEIR   SECURED   BY   STONES. 


A    WEIR   MADE    BY    FASCINES. 


VIEW   OF  A   HURDLED   WATER-GAP. 


RE  STOCKING   DENUDED   WOODLANDS. 


197 


TYPE   OF  A   RUSTIC   WEIR   OR   DAM   MADE   BY   RUBBLE. 


.i?  VV^i:- 


'■>::■:  ^\  i' 


■•;■^;■•'^;vyx•':o;\i;'^•v:^;• 


iissiiii 


GROUND    PLAN   OF   THE   AVEIR. 


VERTICAL   SECTION   OF  THE   WEIR. 


198  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

When,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  soil  is  increased  in 
quantity  and  quality,  we  must  endeavor  to  plant  more 
valuable  trees.  At  all  events,  upon  slopes  whose  pitch 
exceeds  forty  yards  descent  in  the  one  hundred,  the 
high-forest  system  is  the  only  rational  one,  and  in  stock- 
ing with  young  trees,  we  should,  if  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face permits,  prefer  the  species  having  long  tap  roots, 
which  will  bind  the  soil  better. 

The  proper  time  to  build  these  dams  is,  of  course, 
during  the  season  when  the  waters  flow  least  or  not  at 
all.  They  must  be  very  strong  in  order  to  successfully 
resist  the  force  with  which  the  headwaters,  in  times,  are 
precipitating  themselves  into  the  valleys.  It  is,  there- 
fore, advisable,  instead  of  building  a  few  high  dams  in 
great  distances  from  each  other,  to  construct  as  many 
as  possible  low  ones.  For  it  is  the  intention  to  use  these 
dams  not  only  to  obviate  the  fury  of  the  downward 
streaming  waters,  but  also  to  catch  up  every  particle  of 
fertile  soil  which  is  being  carried  below,  and  thus  to 
make  the  soil  remain  in  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the 
mountains.  In  order  to  make  the  dams  strong  and  last- 
ing, the  basis  and  sides  of  the  same  must  be  protected 
by  fascines,  hurdle  work  or  even  by  rocks  and  mason 
work. 

This  is  the  way  in  which  the  memorable  work  for  re- 
stocking the  denuded  woodlands  upon  the  Alps  of 
Southern  France  has  been  achieved,  and  by  which  the 
former  frequent  and  pernicious  inundations  of  the  rivers 
there  for  the  last  ten  years  have  been  prevented.*  It 
is  true  the  costs  have  been  enormous,  but  a  single  inun- 

*  The  best  book  on  tliis  subject  is  written  by  the  French  Over-forest 
Master  Demontzey,  who  conducted  for  nearly  thirty  years  the  worli  of 
re-foresting  and  returfing  denuded  woodlands  in  Algiers  and  France. 
The  full  title  of  this  book  is  :  "  Demonlzey  F.  Traite  pratique  du  reboise' 
merit  et  du  gazonnement  des  montanges.    Paris,  1883." 


EE-STOCKING   DENUDED   WOODLANDS.  199 

dation  of  old  would  now  do  more  damage  than  the  whole 
expenses  amount  to. 

After  a  dam  has  been  perfected,  there  should  be  made 
on  both  sides  outlets  in  the  shape  of  ditches,  having 
such  an  inclination  as  to  lead  the  surplus  water,  which 
accumulates  before  the  dam,  into  transverse  running 
trenches  out  of  which  the  excess  of  Avater  flows  equally 
into  the  territory  below. 

In  regulating  the  mountain  waters  we  have,  however, 
not  only  to  look  out  for  the  very  rivulets,  streamlets  or 
whatever  name  may  be  given  to  the  small  running 
mountain  waters,  but  also  for  the  many  trougli-lihe 
natural  formations  of  the  soil  in  the  mountains,  the 
ruts,  grooves,  streaks  and  even  roads,  as  these  in  times 
of  heavy  and  lasting  rains  often  are  converted  into  water 
currents,  quickly  changing  innocent-looking  furrows 
into  brooks  and  steeply  embanked  ravines.  If  possible, 
these  irregularities  of  the  soil  must  be  removed  in  time, 
by  filling  them  up  with  earth,  commencing  at  the  high- 
est sites.  But  if  this  course  is  not  expedient,  there 
should  be  constructed  at  proper  places  and  distances  in 
these  cavities  crossdams  or  dikes,  capable  of  arresting 
flowing  waters  and  leading  them  through  outlets,  Avhich 
are  made  in  the  above-described  manner  on  both  ends 
of  the  dam,  into  horizontally  running  furrows  or 
trenches,  by  which  they  are  scattered  over  a  larger  area. 

It  is  advisable  to  first  fill  the  lower  part  (bottom)  of 
the  large  cavities  with  stones,  dead  trees  and  bushes  in 
order  to  secure  drainage  under  the  soil  which  will  there 
be  accumulated  as  time  goes  on. 

Then  commence  constructing  at  the  highest  part  of 
the  ravine  in  distances  from  10  to  50  yards,  according 
to  the  steepness  of  the  soil,  a  series  of  barriers  out  of 
fence-wood,  fascines  or  stones.  The  volume  of  water 
at  the  starting  point  of  the  ravine  not  being  large,  these 


300  FOREST   PLANTING. 

barriers  will  resist  the  current.  Arrested  at  each  instant 
by  these  obstacles,  the  Avater  will  deposit  there,  little  by- 
little,  some  stones,  gravel  and  earth,  thus  establishing 
terraces  upon  which  we  may  plant  whatever  is  required . 
after  they  have  been  consolidated  on  their  banks  with 
sods.  If  such  works  are  simultaneously  established  in 
the  bed  of  a  ravine  there  cannot  occur  any  dangerous 
accumulation  of  the  waters,  and  they  will  run  down  the 
mountains  without  violence^  feeding  springs  and  ferti- 
lizing the  fields  in  the  valleys  instead  of  devastating 
them. 

C. — Artificial  Irrigation  of  Mountains  Having  Very 
Dry  Surface  Soil. 

The  system  just  alluded  to  is  of  great  importance  for 
mountains  which  have  a  poor,  dry  soil,  particularly  for 
such  as  contain  much  lime,  because  these,  owing  to  their 
enormous  capacity  of  absorbing  moisture,  are  especially 
inclined  to  dry  up  at  their  surface.  If  this  system  be 
applied  on  such  soils,  it  enables  to  introduce  an  artifi- 
cial irrigation  by  which  the  greatest  results  may  be 
expected.  For  the  trough-like  formations  of  the  moun- 
tain soil  will  be  converted  into  reservoirs  by  construct- 
ing strong  dams  across  their  banks  and  thus  catch 
up  the  rain  and  snow  waters.  They  should  have  outlets 
at  both  ends  of  the  dams  from  which  the  water,  if 
wanted,  is  led  off  into  horizontally-running  trenches, 
over  which  it  will  flow  slowly  and  equally,  irrigating  the 
area  down  below.  The  diagrams  (pp.196-7)  show  how  such 
trenches  are  built.  If  there  should  run  off  more  water 
than  is  wanted,  the  surplus  is  caught  up  at  a  similarly 
situated  lower  place,  and  respectively  stored  or  distrib- 
uted like  that  in  the  higher-lying  localities.  Treated  in 
this  way,  whole  mountains  which  would  in  no  otherwise 


RE-STOCKING   DENUDED   WOODLANDS.  201 

have  been  made  able  to  i^rodiice  a  green  swath,  in  Eu- 
rope, have  been  planted  with  forest-trees,  thereby 
changing  the  nature  of  the  country  entirely.  Formerly, 
bleak  winds  swept  unresisted  over  these  mountains, 
drifting  away  during  the  winter  the  snow  which  shel- 
tered the  surface  against  cold  and  dryness  ;  and  while 
during  the  sj)riug,  the  rains  and  melting  snow  rushed 
over  the  frozen  soil,  causing  very  often,  in  the  rivers  of 
the  valleys,  inundations  which  occasioned  great  losses  of 
life  and  property,  now  after  a  thirty  years'  wood  culture, 
assisted  by  the  above-described  system  of  accumulating 
and  properly  distributing  the  natural  waters  over  the 
entire  mountain  district,  the  winter  snow  is  all  over 
retained,  and  when  slowly  melting,  absorbed  by  a  loose 
and  retentive  mould;  and  the  rain  and  snow  waters,  in- 
stead of  rushing  destructively  downward,  fill  a  retentive 
bed  of  absorbent  soil,  storing  up  a  supply  of  moisture 
to  feed,  besides  the  forest  vegetation,  perennial  springs 
and  brooks. 

D. — Regulation  of  the  Overflowing  Rivers  in  theValleys. 

The  mountain  waters  which  are  not  consumed  by  the 
soil  or  air,  flow,  if  regulated  as  before  described,  greatly 
reduced  into  the  valleys,  forming  brooks  and  streams  or 
increasing  the  contents  of  other  streams  and  rivers.  But 
under  extraordinary  circumstances  there  may,  in  spite 
of  all  human  precautions,  occur  such  an  increase  of 
water  that  the  shallow  streams  in  the  valleys  cannot 
hold  it  but  let  it  run  over  the  cultivated  lands.  To  ob- 
viate such  overflows,  or  at  least  to  mitigate  their  effects, 
in  case  they  occur,  it  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  width  of 
the  flowing  waters  and  force  them  into  smaller  but 
deeper  beds.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  expensive  em- 
bankments  or  jetties,  the  cultivation   of  the  willow — 


202  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

which  we  have  extensively  ventilated  on  page  148 
(Part  11.) — alongside  the  banks  is  the  cheapest  and 
safest  means.  The  natural  location  of  the  willow  is  in 
low  bottom-lands  which  are  exposed  to  occasional  inun- 
dations. If  planted  upon  the  banks  of  a  river,  the  wil- 
lows will  thrive  and  retain,  in  case  of  the  overflowing 
river,  a  great  mass  of  earthy  substances  enmeshed  in  its 
net-work  of  fibrous  roots,  after  the  waters  have  sub- 
sided. At  the  same  time  the  spongy  banklands  are 
made  more  compact  by  the  luxurious  growth  of  the 
willow-roots,  and  able  to  better  resist  encroachments 
caused  by  the  current  of  the  waters. 

In  the  same  proportion  in  which  thus  the  running 
waters,  by  the  gradual  elevation  of  the  banks  and  their 
greater  consistency  are  rendered  more  narrow,  the  depth 
of  the  slanting  bed  will  increase,  owing  —  as  every 
engineer  must  admit — to  the  increased  force  of  the  nar- 
rowed river  current.  This  change  produces  two  very 
desirable  conditions.  Firstly,  tlie  lauds  situated  behind 
the  willow  plantation  are  protected  against  inundations 
by  the  elevated  banks  and,  secondly,  the  flow  of  the 
deepened  and,  therefore,  largely  augmented  river  is, 
owing  to  the  decreased  slant  in  the  bed,  running  slow- 
lier,  thus  contributing  much  more  water,  during  a  longer 
period  of  the  year  to  the  receiving  river  below  than  the 
former  shallow  overflowing  rivulet. 

If  the  banks  of  the  rivers  in  the  mountain  valleys 
consist — as  is  often  the  case — of  gravel,  sand  and  stones 
carried  down  by  the  torrents  from  the  high  mountains, 
the  willow  cannot  be  grown  on  such  soil  successfully. 
In  that  case  we  select  trees  and  shrubs  which  are  in  this 
respect  less  exacting  in  regard  to  location,  as,  for  instance, 
the  poplar,  birch  and  alder.  These  will  grow,  if  planted 
respectively  as  cuttings  or  as  seedlings,  on  such  soil.  If 
the  plantation  be  well  looked  after,  there  will  soon,  by 


RE-STOCKING   DENUDED    AVOODLANDS. 


205 


the  dead  leaves,  be  formed  a  layer  upon  which  will  grow 
mosses  and  lichens,  which,  when  decayed,  under  the 
assistance  of  the  many  earthy  particles,  left  by  reiter- 
ated inundations,  help  to  cover  the  stony  surface  in  the 
course  of  time  with  such  good  humus  soil  as  to  enable 
us  to  raise,  later,  more  valuable  forest-trees. 


304  FOREST  PLANTING. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


HOW  TO   BIND   THE   SHIFTING   SAND   ON   THE 
MOUNTAINS. 

To  bind  the  shifting  sand  on  the  plains  and  render  it 
compact,  adapting  it  to  tree-culture,  is  a  difficult  task. 
But  this  work  is  still  more  difficult  when  it  has  to  be 
done  in  mountainous  localities.  In  the  plains  we  have 
only  to  fight  the  winds,  which  cause  the  sand  to  drift; 
but  in  the  mountains,  besides  this,  we  have  to  overcome 
the  troubles  arising  from  the  unevenness  of  the  soil  and 
its  favoring  the  formation  of  destructive  water  currents 
during  rainy  weather. 

Wherever  the  sandy  soil  is  sufficiently  deep  and  pos- 
sesses the  necessary  components  for  securing  the  growth 
of  trees,  the  work  of  planting  should  be  at  once  com- 
menced, this  being  the  only  means  to  prevent  the  loose 
sand  from  drifting,  both  in  the  plains  and  mountains. 
But  when  Avind  and  water  currents  have  swept  away 
every  bit  of  soil  and  vegetation  from  the  slopes,  and 
nothing  is  left  except  the  rubble-stones,  which  origi- 
nated, during  past  ages,  by  the  corroding  action  of  the 
glaciers  upon  the  rocky  surface,  which  formed  the  ground 
upon  which  the  sand  settled,  there  occur  difficulties 
which  appear  to  be  nearly  insurmountable.  But  "  for- 
est science  "  has  been  brought  to  bear  upon  the  discov- 
ery of  appropriate  expedients,  and  found  them  in  soms 
grasses  which  will  grow  in  such  places,  producing  in 
due  time  a  cover  that  will  later  develop  into  a  sward.  If 
this  cover  be  left  for  some  time  undisturbed  and  not 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  pasturing  farm  animals,  there 
will  appear  such  beneficial  accumulations  from  above 


HOW  TO  BIND  SHIFTING  SAND  ON  MOUNTAINS.      205 

and  below  the  surface  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  tree 
phinting  may  be  begun. 

The  kind  of  grasses  to  be  principally  used  for  binding 
the  mobile  sand  and  keeping  it  in  its  place  are  :  creep- 
ing soft  grass,  tall  oat  grass,  broom  grass,  tall  meadow 
oat  grass,  fescue  grass,  quack  grass,  wood  poa,  pimpi- 
nella,  knotted  hair  grass,  amophila,  lyme  grass,  reed 
grass  or  bur-reed.  In  the  lower  Alps  of  France  sain- 
foin has  been  used  for  this  purpose  with  great  success. 

In  seeding  these  grasses  the  soil,  being  too  mobile, 
should  not  be  touched  either  by  plow  or  harrow,  and 
the  seeding  should  be  done  broadcast  by  hand,  using 
about  twenty  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  only 
tool  to  be  used  in  this  operation  is  the  hand-rake,  for 
slightly  covering  the  seeds.  After  the  elapse  of  some 
years,  during  which  the  reclaimed  lands  should  remain 
entirely  undisturbed,  there  will,  through  the  decay  of 
the  old  grasses  and  the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  young 
ones,  be  formed  a  sward  thick  enough  to  allow  the  rais- 
ing of  some  shrubs  and  arborescent  plants,  the  root  sys- 
tem of  which  qualifying  them  especially  to  keep  the 
scanty  poor  soil  together.  For  this  purjjose  are  recom- 
mended :  juniper,  hazel,  sallow-thorn  or  sea-buckthorn, 
barberry,  bladder-senna  or  bastard-senna,  locust  or 
acacia,  rosin  weed,  asp  or  trembling  poplar,  white  alder, 
blackthorn,  mountain  ash,  jDoplar,  birch,  dwarf  moun- 
tain and  especially  the  "American  "  laurel  {Kalmia.)  It 
has  no  economic  value,  however,  it  is  hardy  and  will 
maintain  a  foothold  where  other  shrubs  would  perish. 
Its  presence  has  saved  m  Ulster  and  Sullivan  Counties, 
N.  Y.,  many  a  mountain  side  from  the  appearance  of 
total  denundation. 

In  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  disturbance  of  the  soil, 
when  sowing  and  cultivating  the  shrubs  and  small  trees, 
it  is  advisable  to  sow  the  former  together  with  the  grass 


206  FOREST   PLANTING. 

seed,  covering  them  with  the  hand-rake,  and  plant  the 
latter — when  one  or  two  years  old — three  feet  distant 
from  each  other,  in  horizontally  running  rows,  six  feet 
apart,  nsing  no  other  tool  but  the  (in  Part  I.)  described 
short-liandled  planting  axe.  Those  trees  which  repro- 
duce themselves  from  the  stumps  should,  after  having 
grown  two  or  three  years,  be  pruned  down  so  as  to  leave 
only  a  short  stump,  as  by  this  process  the  roots  will  be 
increased  in  numbers  and  strength,  and  thus  the  final 
purpose  of  the  culture  of  these  protective  trees  will  be 
reached  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

As  soon  as  the  soil  has  become  more  compact  and  the 
trees  in  the  rows  have  grown  thick  enough  to  afford 
some  protection  against  the  wind  and  sun  rays  we  can 
begin  planting  forest-trees.  In  selecting  these  we  must 
pick  out  those  kinds  that  have  strong  tap  roots,  which 
will  run  deep  into  the  loose  soil  and  contribute  to 
further  strengthen  and  bind  it.  To  this  class  of  trees 
belong:  oak,  pine,  fir,  larch.  They  have  to  be  planted, 
when  two  or  three  years  old,  three  feet  apart  between 
the  above-mentioned  (protective)  rows  by  means  of  the 
planting-axe.  Should  the  sward  be  uncommonly  thick, 
there  should  be  dug,  at  the  proper  places,  j)lant  holes  in 
which  to  set  the  trees.  In  case  the  sward  be  very  thin, 
it  is  advisable  to  open  the  jDlant  holes  with  the  hoe,  fill 
them  with  some  good  humus  soil  or  compost,  and  plant 
therein  by  hand  the  trees,  putting  around  them  stones 
or  sods  as  a  mulch  for  keeping  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 
But  in  such  case  we  cannot  use  trees  with  large  tap  roots, 
we  must  have  recourse  to  other  kinds  which  form  only 
lateral  roots,  as,  for  instance,  beech,  hornbeam,  and  par- 
ticularly spruce  hemlock.  Should  there  exist  spots,  on 
which  no  vegetable  growth  at  all  is  found,  they  should  be 
left  alone,  as  the  time  will  come  when  the  shade  and 
protection  furnished  by  the  surrounding  forest  vegeta- 


RE-PLANTIXG  FORESTS — SAND-STONE  FORMATION.    207 

tion  will  allow  such  places  to  obtain  a  sward,  and  then 
trees  may  be  planted. 

At  all  events,  in  reclaiming  such  sandy  locations  there 
should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  any  tearing  up  of  the  soil, 
thus  leaving  a  good  deal  cf  the  work  to  the  kindness 
and  fertilizing  power  of  nature. 


CHAPTER    V. 


RE-PLANTING    FORESTS    ON    MOUNTAINS    OF    THE    SAND- 
STONE  FORMATION. 

The  cultivation  of  the  poor  sand  soil  on  the  plains 
for  farming  and  even  for  grazing  purposes,  meets  very 
often  with  so  many  difficulties,  that  sand-lands  mostly 
are  considered  worthless.  And  yet,  if  they  would  be 
planted  with  suitable  forest-trees,  both  the  country  and 
the  owner  would  be  benefited,  provided  the  latter  is  able 
to  stand  the  expenses  of  cultivation  without  expecting 
any  noteworthy  income  from  his  property  during  the 
first  quarter  of  a  century.  How  easy  it  is  to  raise  forest- 
trees  on  deep  sandy  soil,  shows  the  cultivation  of  trees 
which  is  effected  on  mountains  of  the  sandstone  forma- 
tion. With  the  excejition  of  those  parts  in  these  moun- 
tains, which  are  very  steep  and  too  much  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  certainly  with  the  exception  of  such  places  as 
are  infested  with  shifting  sands,  of  which  we  have  treated 
heretofore,  there  is  not  much  trouble  in  restoring  de- 
nuded woodlands  on  sand-mountains.  This  formation 
contains  always  some  clayey  component  parts  and  fur- 
nishes, if  the  surface  of  the  rocks  becomes  more  or  less 
dissolved  by  the  air,  the  best  material  for  creating  forests. 
Usually  we  find  at  the  top  of  these  mountains  a  loamy 


208  FOEEST   PLANTING. 

soil,  which  offers  no  difficulties  for  raising  forest-trees, 
unless  it  is  too  clayey  and,  thereforOj  retains  too  much 
moisture.  In  that  case  we  must  resort  to  the  "  dam " 
or  "  bed  "  culture,  described  in  a  former  chapter,  and 
proceed  accordingly. 

The  slopes  of  the  sand-stone  mountains  commonly  con- 
tain enough  clay  to  bind  the  soil,  and  afford  thus  every 
facility  to  soon  re-stock  the  denuded  woodlands  there- 
unon,  except  the  sun  and  winds  have  parched  the  soil, 
and  the  natural  humidity  sunk  too  deep  into  the  subsoil 
to  be  reached  by  the  forest  vegetation.  In  such  a  case 
there  is  no  time  to  lose  to  stop  the  loosened  sand  from 
running  down  into  the  valleys  by  planting  some  pines, 
especially  the  pinus  silvestris.  This  modest  and  unpre- 
tentious friend  of  the  forester  is  the  principal  tree  which 
will  grow  on  those  neglected  places,  and  render  the  worn- 
out  soil  capable  of  producing,  in  later  times,  more  valu- 
able trees. 

Although  the  sand  in  the  valleys  of  the  sand-stone 
mountains,  washed  from  the  slopes,  often  reaches  a  con- 
siderable height,  the  spontaneous  growth  of  trees  there, 
dating  back  perhaps  hundreds  and  thousands  of  years, 
shows  that  this  locality  is  the  proper  place  for  the  most 
valuable  deciduous  trees,  viz. :  beeches  and  oaks.  Cer- 
tainly on  such  sites,  if  denuded  for  a  long  time,  and, 
therefore,  having  become  sterile  on  the  surface,  we  can- 
not expect  to  raise,  right  away,  beeches,  as  these  require 
besides  a  friable  fertile  soil,  when  young,  amj^le  protec- 
tion against  the  sun.  But  the  re-foresting  can  be 
effected  by  planting  pines  in  rows,  properly  distant,  and 
after  the  pines  have  reached  a  height  sufficient  to  over- 
shade  and  fertilize  the  surface  soil,  tlie  interjacent  open 
rows  should  be  planted  alternately  with  beeches,  oaks, 
firs,  and  larches.  It  is  true  that  in  favorable  years  and 
with  good  seeds,  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained 


RE-PLANTING  FORESTS — LIME-STONE  FORMATION.    209 

by  "sowing  "  the  last-named  trees  in  the  rows  protected 
by  the  pines;  but  in  general,  planting  is  here  also  more 
safe.  Planting  is  easily  done  by  removing  the  moss  from 
the  friable  soil  and  using  the  short-handled  planting  axe. 
If  the  soil  of  the  plantation  is  so  poor  as  to  foretell, 
under  all  circumstances,  a  failure  in  producing  foliaged 
trees,  the  interjacent  rows  should  be  planted  with  other 
coniferous  trees,  especially  with  spruces,  to  which 
should  be  given  a  wider  position  towards  each  other  than 
is  usual  with  young  deciduous  trees,  viz. :  a  width  of 
from  six  to  eiorht  feet. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


RE-PLANTING   FORESTS   ON   MOUNTAINS   OF   THE    LIME- 
STONE  FORMATION. 

Nowhere  is  shown  the  effect  of  forest-trees  upon  the 
soil  more  convincingly  than  in  the  mountains  of  the 
limestone  formation.  The  power  of  the  limey  or  calca- 
reous soil,  and  its  adaptability  to  j)i'omote  the  growth 
of  forest-trees,  are  very  great  and  can  be  enormously 
increased  by  uninterruptedly  keeping  the  surface  cov- 
ered with  trees.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  ground 
quicker  deteriorated  by  being  exposed  to  the  sun  and 
weather  than  the  limestone  soil.  If  the  ground  on  the 
calcareous  mountains  has  been  once  completely  denuded 
from  forest  vegetation,  there  is  seldom  any  hope  to  stop 
its  progressing  sterility.  For,  on  such  soil,  every  moist- 
ure received  from  the  air  will,  owing  to  the  peculiar- 
ity of  the  ground,  evaporate  much  quicker  than  on  any 
other  soil,  and  the  balance  of  the  Avater  will  run  without 
any  hope  of  being  returned  into  the  depth  of  the  lime- 


210  FOREST   PLANTING. 

stone,  forming  hydrates.  Denuded  woodlands  on  lime- 
stone mountains,  therefore,  very  soon  lose  their  vegetable 
mold.  At  first,  it  is  true,  there  will  spring  up  a  strong 
sward  of  grasses;  but  soon,  for  want  of  shade  and  moist- 
ure, the  grasses  disappear,  the  soil  softens  by  the  rain 
and  snow  water,  becomes  a  pap  which,  after  the  evapo- 
ration of  the  natural  moisture,  dries  up  stone-like,  and 
exhibits  at  the  surface  but  burned-up  spots. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  forests  on  limestone  mountains 
are  managed  so  as  to  have  the  soil  always  covered  with 
trees — as  is  the  case  with  the  "  planter  management " — 
there  will  nowhere  grow  finer  beech  forests.  The  culti- 
vation of  this  majestic  tree  is  natural  to  this  soil,  forming 
the  most  convenient  habitat  to  the  beech.  The  shade 
created  by  the  dense  growth  of  the  beeches  makes  the 
surface  soil  increase  in  richness  from  year  to  year,  and 
this  increase  of  plant-food  furnished  by  the  decaying 
leaves  and  twigs  of  the  beech  is  amply  returned  to  the 
forest  vegetation.  Certainly,  coniferous  trees  will  suc- 
ceed on  these  places  just  as  well  as  beeches,  and  as  the 
more  valuable  kinds  of  evergreens  prove  to  be  commer- 
cially more  profitable  than  beeches,  the  cultivation  of 
the  pride  of  the  old  European  foresters,  already  dimin- 
ished by  the  encroachments  made  by  the  agricultural 
interests  in  the  beech  lands  on  the  plains,  is  in  the  old 
country  decreasing  from  year  to  year. 

For  the  restoration  of  the  denuded  woodlands  in  lime- 
stone mountains  we  have  again  to  resort  to  the  pine, 
this  being  the  only  tree  which  will,  even  luxuriantly, 
grow  on  such  soil. 

This  observation  has  led  many  scientific  foresters  to 
assume  that  pines  should  be  principally  raised  upon  the 
soil  in  question.  But  experience  has  shown  that  this 
was  a  mistake.  The  luxuriant  growth  of  the  pine  does 
not  last  longer  than  the  first  twenty  years  of  its  life; 


KE-PLANTING  FORESTS — LIME-STONE  FORMxVTION.    211 

after  that  period  the  pines  slowly  dwindle  away.  How- 
ever, if  the  growing  period  be  properly  used,  the  restora- 
tion of  the  soil  may  be  so  far  completed  as  to  begin  the 
cultivation  of  the  beech.  With  an  eye  to  this  object, 
the  plantation  of  the  pines  should  be  considered  as  a 
transitory  one,  and  so  arranged  as  to  protect  the  poor 
soil  against  the  scorching  sun-rays,  and  other  attacks 
made  by  the  elements  upon  the  ground.  The  larch,  if 
intermixed  with  pines,  has  proven  a  great  help  for  im- 
proving the  soil,  this  tree  being  the  only  coniferous  tree 
which  drops  every  year  its  leaves,  and  thus  furnishes 
more  material  for  the  formation  of  a  new  humus  soil 
than  the  evergreens.  Under  all  circumstances  the  lime- 
stone soil  may  hopefully  be  considered  reclaimed  as  soon 
as  the  pine  has  gained  a  foothold  upon  it.  After  that, 
it  is  easy  to  plant  there  beeches  and  oaks,  and  other 
valuable  forest-trees. 

Should  it,  for  financial  or  commercial  reasons,  be  con- 
sidered not  advisable  to  raise  pure  stock,  intermixing 
pines  and  larches  with  beeches  can  be  recommended,  as 
these  trees  agree  very  well  with  each  other.  But  we 
must  avoid  to  employ  here  the  spruce,  on  account  of  its 
being  inclined  to  encroach  upon  the  growth  of  neigh- 
boring trees.  However,  we  should  always  bear  in  mind, 
that  the  limestone  mountains  are  the  natural  home  of 
the  beech  and,  therefore,  endeavor  to  keep,  wherever 
possible  pure  stock  of  beeches,  this  being  the  only  means 
to  increase,  by  degrees,  the  fertility  of  this  questionable 
soil.  After  the  soil  having,  by  continued  cultivation  of 
the  beech,  fully  recovered  its  fertility,  it  is  easy,  if 
wanted,  to  raise  among  the  beeches  other  valuable  forest- 
trees,  as,  for  instance,  spruce,  larch,  and  ash. 

The  mode  of  cultivating  trees  on  limestone  moun- 
tains is  the  same  as  upon  sandstone  mountains,  but  the 
directions  given  under  the  chapter  of  regulating  moun- 


213  FOREST   PLANTING. 

tain  waters  and   binding  the  shifting  sand    should  be 
here  very  closely  observed. 

As  before  stated  the  pines  play  the  most  important 
part  in  the  reforestation  of  denuded  woodlands  on  cal- 
careous mountains,  and  among  them  the  unpretentious 
Scotch  pine  usually  performs  very  valuable  service. 
However,  in  this  case  the  well-known  Austrian  black 
pine  has  proved  still  more  serviceable,  it  being  not  only 
indigenous  in  high  mountains,  but  thriving  also  on 
light,  dry  calcareous  soil  no  matter  how  destitute  it  may 
be  of  humus.  The  foliage  of  this  tree  is  very  thick, 
and  the  shade  caused  by  it  very  dense.  The  soil, 
therefore,  is  supplied  Avith  an  abundance  of  detritus, 
and  the  humidity,  received  by  the  ground  from  the 
atmosphere,  evaporates  but  slowly.  This  pine  has  no 
taproot,  but  sends  its  creeping  roots  along  the  stony 
ground  till  they  find  fissures  into  which  they  insinuate 
themselves,  thereby  strengthening  their  adherence  to 
the  slippery  soil.  The  cultivation  of  the  Austrian  pine 
offers  still  less  difficulties  than  that  of  the  Scotch  pine. 
The  thin  or  hardened  soil  should  be  torn  up  by  cross- 
harrowing  with  an  iron  harrow,  and  the  seed,  about 
three  pounds  to  the  acre,  sown  broadcast,  should  be 
covered  by  dragging  over  the  field  with  the  brush  har- 
I'ow — see  p.  77.  If  the  seed  is  drilled  in,  two  pounds 
per  acre  are  sufficient  to  produce  the  required  density 
of  tree  growth,  as  this  pine  on  account  of  its  thick  foli- 
age stands  in  need  of  more  space  than  the  Scotch  pine. 
In  a  few  years  the  Austrian  black  pine  will  have  got  it- 
self properly  established,  putting  forth  considerable 
shoots,  under  the  protection  of  which  the  beech,  as  the 
final  stock  of  tree,  may  be  started.  In  order  to  secure 
a  safe  and  speedy  growth  of  the  seedlings  the  plant- 
holes  on  this  shallow  and  stony  ground  should  be  well 
filled  with  good  humus  soil  or  compost. 


RESTOCKING   ON   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS.  213 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RESTOCKING   MOUNTAINS   HAVING   ROCKY   SURFACES. 

Nothing  can  be  grown  on  rocks  that  are  entirely  bare 
except  some  varieties  of  mosses  and  plants  of  the  lowest 
order  which  derive  their  food  wholly  from  the  air,  and 
use  the  rocks  only  as  a  holdfast.  But,  when  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  has  been  broken  up  by  the  action,  both 
of  the  rock-devouring  bacilli*  and  the  elements — heat 
and  cold  principally; — and  crumbled  into  its  original 
composing  parts,  the  growth  of  plants  and  trees  may  take 
place.     Thin  process  is  still  going  on  all  over  the  earth. 


*Very  interesting  observations  in  regard  to  the  decomposition  of 
rocky  mountains  and  the  formation  of  Immus  upon  their  surface  have 
been  lately  made  by  Professor  A.  Muentz.  He  found  that  the  contin- 
uous dissolution  of  uncovered  rocks  was  not  caused  solely  by  the 
chemical  and  mechanical  action  of  the  atmosphere ;  but  also  in  part 
by  some  microbes  which  develop  in  pure  mineral  solutions  by  obtain- 
ing the  required  carbon  from  the  carbonic  acid  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia  contained  in  the  atmosphere.  These  minutest  of  animal- 
cules penetrate  into  the  smallest,  and,  to  the  naked  eye,  imperceptible 
fissures  of  rocks,  manifesting  their  presence  by  leaving  behind  them 
atoms  of  organic  substances  which  serve  to  form  the  first  traces  of 
humus.  During  the  winter  they  rest  and  take  their  winter  nap ;  but 
when  the  warm  season  returns,  they  resume  their  rock-destroying 
activity  and  enter  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  solid  stone  formation. 
While  the  geologist  stands  here  full  of  admiration  at  the  results  of  the 
workings  of  nearly  invisible  microscopic  creatures,  entirely  unknown 
up  to  the  present  time  ;  the  physiologist  is  still  more  astonished  at  the 
ability  of  these  bacilli  to  build  up  their  substance  by  assimilating 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  without  the  help  of  any  other  power  but 
the  warmth  generated  by  the  oxydation  of  ammonia.  Undoubtedly 
these  microbes  have  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  present  con- 
tour of  our  globe,  and  the  accumulation  of  the  plant-nourishing 
humus ;  they  will  continue  their  action  upon  the  stone  formation  of 
our  planet  tLI  the  last  rock  has  crumbled  to  pieces. 


214  FOREST   PLANTING. 

and  if  we  follow  the  hints  pointed  out  herein  by  nature 
we  are  able  to  cover  rocky  surfaces  with  vegetation  much 
quicker  than  nature  does  it  herself. 

If  only  a  small  area  with  a  rocky  surface  is  desired  to 
be  planted,  the  ground  should  first  be  covered  with 
sods ;  and  after  the  turf  has  become  firmly  fastened  to 
the  rocky  foundation,  grasses,  bushes,  and  even  trees 
may  be  grown  thereon.  But  upon  bare  rocks  of  larger 
dimensions  this  operation  would  be  too  expensive  and 
therefore  we  must  look  for  other  means  to  secure  our 
object. 

Eegularly  the  crevices  and  fissures  of  rocks,  caused 
by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  humidity  that 
enters  the  pores  of  the  rocks,  are  first  filled  up  with 
mineralic  particles  on  which  plant  growth  is  made 
possible.  These  places  have  first  to  be  taken  wp  and  to 
be  planted  with  suitable  shrubs  or  trees,  according  to 
the  location  and  site  of  the  place.  The  development  of 
the  roots  of  the  trees  and  bushes  grown  in  those  crevices 
helps  very  much  to  promote  the  further  disintegration 
of  the  rocky  surface  and  the  accumulation  of  ingredients 
upon  which  plants  and  trees  feed.  As  soon  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  is  sufficiently  broken  uj)  into  small 
stones,  which  in  time  become  embedded  in  some  soil,  the 
operation  of  planting  trees  can  be  accelerated  by  mak- 
ing horizontal  terraces  at  convenient  intervals,  beginning 
at  the  highest  point  of  the  place  to  be  improved,  and 
seciiring  the  steep  edges  of  the  terraces  by  fascines  or 
wattled  willow  fences.  It  will  not  take  a  long  time  ere 
the  spaces  between  the  edges  of  the  terraces  become 
filled  up  by  the  further  decomposition  of  the  rocks  and 
stones,  and  then  there  will  be  room  enough  for  jilanting 
shrubs  and  trees. 

This  is  the  only  way  in  Avhich  rocky  surfaces  of 
mountainous    slopes,    on    which    the    mold   has  been 


RESTOCKING   ON   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS.  215 

washed  down  by  rain,  or  been  burnt  away — as  often  oc- 
curs in  the  Adirondacks — may  be  covered  with  materials 
for  producing  a  forest  vegetation.  The  terraces  may 
also  be  secured  by  planting  bushes  at  their  outside, 
thus  forming  living  hedges.  These  will  in  due  time 
be  covered  by  the  accumulated  earthy  substances,  and 
then  the  decaying  vegetation  will  enrich  the  soil.  Upon 
the  soil,  which  has  accumulated  between  the  edges  of 
the  terraces,  rows  of  suitable  young  trees  are  set  along, 
which,  when  properly  rooted,  will  secure  the  object  in- 
tended and  prevent  the  recurrence  of  further  damages 
by  keeping  the  surface  soil  from  shifting. 

On  rocky  steeps  where  there  is  little  or  no  visible  soil, 
and  where  seed  can  only  be  deposited  in  chinks  and 
crevices,  or  sown  in  occasional  patches  of  soil,  seeding 
will  always  have  the  preference  to  the  mode  of  planting. 

As  for  the  trees  and  shrubs  to  be  selected  for  j)lanting 
in  the  fissures  and  interstices  of  rocks,  there  are  none 
which  serve  the  purpose  of  working  through  their  roots 
upon  the  rocks  better  than  the  Austrian  black  pine,  the 
ailanthus,  crabapple,  and  the  wild  rosebush.  In  regard 
to  the  Austrian  pine  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding 
chapter  that  it  prospers  even  upon  the  scantiest  and 
poorest  soil,  and,  therefore,  is  well  qualified  for  the  re- 
forestation of  bare  rocks,  provided  there  are  some  inter- 
stices or  fissures  into  which  it  can  send  its  strong  roots 
to  retain  its  holdfast.  Of  the  action  of  the  ailanthus  in 
this  respect  we  can  convince  ourselves  easily  by  looking 
at  some  unfinished  rocky  parts  of  our  great  Central 
Park.  There  this  tree  has  obtained  such  a  hold  upon 
the  rocks  that,  after  the  lapse  of  another  quarter  of  a 
century,  no  artificial  means  will  be  required  to  cover 
those  rocks  with  vegetation.  The  crabapple  and  the 
wild  rosebush  make  so  little  demand  upon  the  soil  that 
their  seeds,  fallen  into  crevices  of  old  brick  walls,  sprout. 


216  FOKEST   PLANTING. 

grow  lip,  and  develop  sncli  powerful  vegetation  in  root 
and  trunk  that  they,  in  the  course  of  time,  tear  the  walls 
asunder.  The  wild  roses,  besides,  have  the  advantage 
of  sendmg  up  many  shoots,  all  around  the  stem.  If 
these  shoots  are  laid  down  in  from  four  to  five  inches 
deep  grooves,  and  so  covered  with  earth  that  only  the 
tips  are  looking  above  the  ground,  there  will  be  soon 
formed  such  a  thick  net  of  rootlets  under  the  surface 
soil  as  to  bind  entirely  the  soil  and  keep  it  together. 

Besides  the  ailanthus  French  authorities  recommend 
for  reforesting  localities  with  rocky  surfaces  the  larch 
and  the  pine  of  Aleppo.  The  latter  thrives  upon  even 
the  poorest  soil,  because  it  draws,  like  most  of  the  coni- 
fers, a  large  part  of  its  food  from  the  air,  increases  by 
its  plenty  leaves  (needles)  the  soil  underneath,  and  is 
not  affected  either  by  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun  or 
the  blasting  winter  winds. 

These  trees  and  shrubs  permit  even  grasses  to  grow 
under  their  shade,  and  thus  aid  to  increase  the  mold  on 
the  rocky  surface  by  the  successive  growth  and  decay  of 
the  vegetation,  enabling  us,  as  time  goes  on,  to  plant 
more  valuable  trees. 

It  happens  very  often  that  the  soil  upon  the  said 
terraces  is  neither  sufficiently  thick  nor  stable 
enough  to  furnish  a  good  bed  to  the  young  trees. 
They  grow  there  very  slowly  and  poorly,  their  roots 
being  unable  to  hold  on  the  little  soil  which  should 
cover  them,  but  is  washed  away  by  rain,  so  that  the 
roots  receive  their  subsistence  only  by  the  humidity 
retained  on  the  overlaying  stones.  In  such  cases  we 
have  to  sow  quickly  and  vigorously  growing  fodder 
grasses,  either  before  planting  or  shortly  afterwards,  as 
these  at  first  give  the  best  protection  for  young  trees 
against  meteorological  influences ;  and  later,  when  de- 
cayed by  the  shade  of  the  growing  trees,  they  increase 


RESTOCKING   ON   HIGH   MOUNTAINS.  217 

the  fertile  soil.      At  all  events,   these   grasses  prevent 
the  washing  away  of  the  thin  soil  by  rain  storms. 

The  French  have  had  a  long  and  satisfactory  experi- 
ence in  this  matter,  as  they  have  during  the  past  thirty 
years  undertaken  the  reforesting  of  the  denuded  wood 
and  grass  lands  on  the  Lower  Alps.  They  recommend 
principally  the  esparsette,  as  giving  the  best  protection 
to  the  saplings.  But  as  this  grass  runs  out  after  three 
or  four  years,  unless  resown,  it  is,  when  the  planta- 
tion requires  protection  during  a  longer  time,  usually 
mixed  with  other  grasses,  especially  with  hromus  erec- 
his,  avena  elatior,  fiolcus  mollis,  lasiagrostis,  calamagros- 
tis,  and  pimpinella.  Mixing  is  done  in  the  projDortion 
of  seventy-five  esparsette  to  twenty-five  of  the  bulk  of 
the  other  grasses.  It  is  true  that  the  admixed  grasses 
do  not  fully  develop  until  two  or  three  years  after  being 
sown,  but  they  last  much  longer  than  the  esparsette. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


RESTOCKING  DENUDED  WOODLANDS  ON  HIGH  MOUNTAINS. 

The  attempts  to  re|)air  the  damages  caused  by  the 
cupidity  and  imprudence  of  men  to  tbe  woodlands  on 
those  mountains  which  extend  upward  to  from  five 
thousand  to  nine  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  have 
shown  hovv^  hazardous  it  is  to  interfere,  however 
slightly,  with  whatever  nature  has  arranged  by  the  work 
of  time.  The  high  mountains  are  the  principal  sources 
and  headwaters  for  navigable  rivers.  Whatever  tree, 
bush  or  shrub  may  grow  there  forms  a  protection 
against  uncommon  fiov/ing  off  of  the  water  supply,  and. 


218  FOEEST   PLANTING. 

therefore,  should  never  be  touched,  the  penalty  for  the 
violation  of  this  rule  being  often  an  irreparable  injury 
to  the  best  interests  of  the  commonwealth.  European 
countries  have  enormously  suffered  from  the  reckless 
devastations  committed  on  the  high  mountains  during 
the  last  two  centuries.  Southern  France  above  all  labored 
heavily  under  the  inundations  caused  every  year  by  the 
torrents  pouring  down  unchecked  from  the  denuded 
mountains.  But  the  great  efforts  both  financial  and 
scientific,  made  by  France  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  have  culminated  in  a  success,  of  which  that 
nation  can  justly  be  proud.  While  France  thus  has 
been  expiating  a  great  politico-economical  sin  of  former 
generations,  that  part  of  Austria-Hungary,  which  sur- 
rounds the  Adriatic  Gulf,  and  contains  a  territory  of 
about  four  thousand  square  miles,  is  now  threatened 
with  entire  sterility  by  shifting  sands,  unless  the 
exertions  initiated  recently  for  reforesting  the  denuded 
woodlands  on  the  high  mountains  of  the  coast  meet 
with  success.  In  a  short  time  men  can  destroy  through 
ignorance  and  avarice  what  took  nature  centuries  to 
build  up.  If  the  summits  and  higher  parts  of  the 
mountains  be  entirely  denuded,  the  force  of  the  winds, 
being  there  nearly  irresistible,  checks  the  growth  even 
of  those  grasses  aud  sedges  which  usually  spring  up 
there  luxuriantly,  when  not  disturbed  or  tied  down  by 
the  elements. 

In  order  to  restock  the  denuded  woodlands  on  the 
high  mountains,  there  should,  in  the  first  place,  be 
strictly  observed  the  directions  heretofore  given  in 
regard  to  the  regulation  of  the  mountain  waters  and 
springs  and  to  the  binding  of  shifting  sands,  as  far  as 
applicable  to  the  requirements  of  the  locality.  But  the 
greatest  hindrances  to  be  fought  against  here  are  the 
high  and  destructive  winds  which  prevent  the  growing 


KESTOCKING    ON    HIGH   MOUNTAINS.  219 

of  any  forest  vegetation  on  those  exposed  regions.  To 
obviate  this  evil,  the  first  tiling  to  be  done  is  to  culti- 
vate the  coarser  kind  of  mountain  grasses  to  act  as 
a  protection  to  the  future  plantations.  After  a  few 
years'  undisturbed  growth,  during  which  the  grasses 
have  been  protecting  the  ground  against  the  damaging 
influence  of  cold,  dry,  and  stormy  weather,  we  can  com- 
mence planting  in  rows  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet 
apart  shrubs  and  bushes  of  the  hardiest  kind,  such  as 
juniper,  sorbtree,  common  hawthorn,  etc.,  as  a  protec- 
tion to  subsequent  plantations.  As  soon  as  they  have 
gained  a  good  hold  upon  the  soil,  the  intervening, 
empty  stretches  should  be  filled  with  additional  pro- 
tective rows,  containing,  according  to  climatic  circum- 
stances, pines,  larches,  wild  or  dwarf  pine,  grey  alder, 
birch,  willows,  aspen-trees,  etc.;  while  the  spruce,  the 
fir-leaved  pine  and  sometimes  larch  and  wild  mountain 
pine  should  be  planted  later  for  forming  the  stock  of 
trees.  Among  the  pines  there  is  no  species  which 
serves  better  the  purpose  of  re-stocking  steep  and  high 
mountain  plateaus  than  the  oft-mentioned  Austrian 
black  pine.  It  gets  along  well  on  declivities  and  high 
situations,  and  all  exposures  seem  to  agree  with  it. 

Should  pines  grow  well — a  case  which  seldom  occurs 
in  these  high  regions — it  is  advisable  to  plant  the  entire 
area  with  pines  as  the  stock  of  trees.  After  they  have 
fairly  developed,  open  spaces  found  between  them 
should  be  filled  in  with  spruces. 

But  should  the  growth  of  the  spruce  prove  satisfac- 
tory for  forming  the  stock  of  trees,  larches  are  to  be 
used  as  a  protection,  and  should  be  planted  in  rows  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet  distant,  to  serve  as  a  windbreak  to 
the  spruces  which  will  later  be  planted  in  the  alternat- 
ing ojien  spaces.  For  the  spruce  being  one  of  the  har- 
diest trees,  is  able  to  live  farthest  up  on  the  mountains, 


220  FOREST    PLANTING. 

and,  therefore,  is  especially  qualified  to  form  the  stock 
of  trees  in  the  higher  regions. 

Should  it  be  practicable  to  successfully  grow  the 
larch,  then  the  wild  or  dwarf  mountain  pine  {pinus 
pumilio)  may  be  used  as  a  covering  and  protection  to 
the  former,  during  the  first  period  of  its  growth. 

In  the  very  highest  regions,  there  does  not  exist  any 
forest  vegetation  except  the  wild  or  dwarf  mountain 
pine  ;  to  try  other  trees  is  sheer  waste  of  time  and 
money. 

Finally  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  in 
undertaking  to  replant  such  exj^osed  localities,  the 
operation  never  should  be  begun  at  a  place  which  is 
from  all  sides  exposed  to  the  inclemencies  of  the 
weather  and  situation  ;  but  work  must,  if  practicable, 
be  commenced  at  a  place  which  adjoins  an  existing 
stock  or  clump  of  trees  or  has  any  other  protection, 
and,  shielded  in  this  manner,  planting  should  gradu- 
ally go  on  till  the  whole  area  is  set  out. 

The  seedlings  to  be  employed  in  bleak  and  exposed 
situations  should  be  brought  up  as  hardy  as  possible, 
and  so  that  they  take  girth  in  proportion  to  their  height 
and  develop  such  a  strong  root  system  as  to  hold  them 
firm  against  violent  winds.  For  this  reason,  when  large 
tracts  in  those  locations  are  to  be  reforested,  there 
should  be  established  in  the  midst  of  the  grounds  a 
nursery  for  raising  the  required  seedlings  because  plaiits 
grown  under  less  trying  circumstances  would  not 
thrive  here.  Certainly  the  nursery  must  be  sheltered 
against  severe  winds  by  building  substantial  stone 
walls  or  earth  embankments  around  them.  These 
dams  should  not  be  higher  than  about  six  feet,  but 
they  should  be  covered  with  a  strong  and  projecting 
coping  by  which  the  wind  is  broken  when  it  rises  at  the 
wall.       If  the  seedlings  in  exposed  localities  are  too 


RE-STOCKING    ON    HIGH    MOUNTAINS.  221 

much  sheltered,  they  are  unable  to  withstand  the 
severity  of  the  exposure  when  transplanted  to  tlieir  place 
of  destination. 

As  to  the  expenses  of  the  operations,  it  is  well  known 
that  they  are  very  heavy,  because  most  of  the  work  has 
to  be  done  by  manual  labor  and  a  return,  if  at  all,  will 
come  in  very  late  and  very  slowly.  Therefore  it  is  no 
wonder  that  private  property  situated  upon  high  moun- 
tains, after  it  has  beeu  stripped  of  the  trees,  is  abandoned 
by  the  owners  and  left  to  the  care  of  the  government. 
Such  property  never  should  go  into  private  hands,  but 
always  ought  to  be  retained  by  the  government.  The 
latter  have  the  means  to  undertake  the  expensive  cul- 
tures called  for  by  an  urgent  politico-economical  neces- 
sity, and  need  not  expect  any  other  return  from  the 
amelioration  than  that  which  results  to  the  general  wel- 
fare of  the  people.*  Besides,  governments  have  always 
thousands  of  strong  hands  at  their  disposal  in  the  public 
prisons.  They  cannot  make  better  use  of  them,  both 
for  the  prisoners'  own  sake  and  that  of  the  common- 
wealth, than  to  employ  them  in  this  kind  of  work. 

The  State  of  New  York  would  undoubtedly  derive  a 
great  benefit  by  adopting  some  such  measure,  and  going 
on  to  replant  the  denuded  woodlands  in  the  Adirondacks, 
whereby  it  would  be  self-evident  that  the  State  should 
be  the  owner  of  the  high  mountain  territory.  At  the  same 
time  the  State  would  solve  in  the  most  sim]3le  way  the 
grave  question  of  competition  of  prison  labor  with  free 
labor.  There  was  some  time  ago  a  report  in  the 
newspapers  about  a  visit  paid  by  Governor  Hill  to  the 
Clinton  State  Prison  which,  as  is  known,  lies  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  Adirondacks,  1,700  feet  above 
sea-level.      In  this  report   it  was    stated :    "  that  there 


*  See  the  remarks  on  pages  24  and  25. 


222  FOREST   PLANTING. 

we7-e  500  convicts  kej)t  busy  every  day,  each  of  them 
being  toorth  50  cents  a  day  to  the  State.  The  State  made 
garments  and  overcoats  at  yr  ices  from  $3.50  to  $6.00, 
which  could  not  be  produced  from  any  tailor  in  Neiu 
Yoi^k  City  under  |12  or  $15."  Now  would  the  public 
interests  of  the  State  of  New  York  not  much  better  be 
promoted  if  these  prisoners  were  kept  busy  in  replant- 
ing and  improving  the  denuded  woodlands  in  the 
Adirondacks ;  even  if  they  were  then  worth  much  less 
than  fifty  cents  a  day  to  the  State,  than  to  compete  with 
the  cheap  tailoring  in  our  cities  ? 


CHAPTER    IX. 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 


State  Forest   Niirsery — Forest   School — Forest  Fxperi- 
ment  Station — Asyhim  for  the   Game. 

The  preceding  chapter  brings  us  to  the  end  of  the 
discussions  outlined  in  the  preface,  in  which,  when 
written  some  time  ago,  the  application  of  scientific  for- 
estry to  our  State  forests  was  considered  more  as  a  pos- 
sibility for  the  future  than  in  the  expectation  that  the 
principles  which  it  advocated  were  so  soon  to  be  real- 
ized. But  as  a  great  and  significant  change  in  public 
sentiment,  leaning  toward  the  author's  views  has  taken 
place  since  that  time,  a  few  further  remarks  may  not  be 
out  of  place. 

The  Forestry  Act  of  1885  provided  in  fact  solely  for 
the  protection  of  the  State  forests  against  fire  and  thefts, 
but  made  no  attempt  to  have  them  managed  efficiently. 
The  Adirondack  Park  Association,  however,  as  stated  on 


CONCLUDIXG   REMARKS.  233 

page  139,  has  taken  the  matter  in  hand,  and  is  endeavor- 
ing not  only  to  bring  about  an  enlargement  of  the  State 
property  in  the  Adirondacks  in  order  to  secure  the  water 
sheds  of  our  navigable  rivers  against  further  wanton 
wood  destruction;  but  also  to  introduce  a  systematic 
management  of  the  State  forests  with  the  view  of  mak- 
ing them  a  source  of  permanent  revenue  for  the  State. 

Now  the  question  arises  whether  this  change  of  policy 
by  which  the  State  appears  as  a  great  landed  proprietor 
and  dealer  in  wood  products  is  desirable  in  the  face  of 
the  strongly  existing  American  idea  that  the  Govern- 
ment never  shall  compete  with  private  industries  and 
occupations,  but  must  only  interfere  to  secure  perfect 
freedom  of  labor  and  facilitate  private  enterprise. 

And  here  we  may,  without  resorting  to  the  dangerous 
expedient  of  forming  new  schools  of  economists  for 
America,*  on  general  grounds  as  well  as  by  the  experience 
of  other  countries  enjoying  the  same  free  institutions 
which  we  possess  {e.g.  Switzerland),  answer  this  question 
unhesitatingly  in  the  affirmative. 

The  Adirondack  region  as  a  whole  is,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  lands  situated  along  the  river  valleys  and  the 
shores  of  some  of  the  larger  lakes,  utterly  unfit  for  agri- 
cultural purposes.  As  soon  as  the  timber  is  taken  away 
the  owner  of  the  tract  has  no  more  interest  in  it.  Seed- 
ing and  harvesting  time  are  too  far  apart  from  each 
other.  The  forest-planter  will  never  reap  the  full  bene- 
fit of  his  labors,  and  therefore,  the  owner  does  not  feel 
like  going  on  to  replant  a  tract  which  he  has  just 
stripped  of  its  trees  to  realize  the  anticipated  benefits  of 
his  property.     To  replant  his  denuded  lands  a  large  capi- 


*  See  "  Annual  Report  of  the  Division  of  Forestry  for  1887,"  p.  47, 
init. 


224  FOREST   PLANTING. 

tal  is  required,  and  this  capital  will  be  tied  up  for 
generations,  and  pay  only  at  the  end  of  a  long  period 
accumulated  interest  together  with  the  invested  money. 
This  kind  of  business  does  not  agree  with  the  average 
American.  He  prefers  to  have  his  capital  at  his  dis- 
posal and  when  he  uses  it,  he  expects  to  make  high 
profits  and  quick  returns.  To  the  State,  however,  the 
material  value  of  the  wood  products  are  of  secondary 
significance;  the  economic  influence  of  those  wooded 
mountains  upon  the  general  weal  of  the  country  is  the 
principal  reason  for  endeavoring  to  obtain  control  over 
a  region  which  will  secure  the  ascribed  economic  effects 
only  when  continually  kept  under  wood. 

And  yet  there  are  some  peculiar  features  about  the 
possession  of  well-managed  forests  which  should  make 
them  extremely  desirable  for  the  many  rich  people  we 
have  in  this  country,  and  who  can  afford  to  tie  up  a 
part  of  their  wealth  for  a  longer  period  before  receiving 
returns.     These  features  are : 

1.  The  investment  is  as  safe  as  in  the  most  solid  sav- 
ings bank,  and  at  a  rate  of  interest  which  at  least  equals 
that  paid  by  the  banks. 

To  prove  this,  is  not  difficult,  but  it  would  lead  us 
here  too  far  to  do  it.  Suffice  it  to  observe  that  the 
closest  calculations  made  in  European  countries  in  re- 
gard to  wood  accretion  in  the  forests  confirm  the  cor- 
rectness of  this  statement,  which  will  be  still  more 
applicable  to  our  country  as  the  growth  of  trees  here  by 
far  surpasses  that  in  Europe,  and  the  rate  of  interest  is 
the  same  in  both  countries. 

As  for  the  much-feared  forest  fires,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  we  also  will  be  able  to  discover  and  apply  some  such 
means,  both  of  preventing  and  extinguishing  forest  fires 
as  have  been  devised  in  Europe  so  that  there  at  present 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS.  225 

any  aanger  of  passing  railroad  trains  through  wooded 
districts  has  been  removed. 

2.  The  hxbor  required  in  the  management  of  forests 
is  much  smaller  than  that  employed  in  any  other  busi- 
ness, especially  in  the  allied  one,  of  agriculture;  but 
any  sum  of  money  properly  spent  in  the  administration 
and  exploitation  of  forests  will  always  give  sure  and 
highly  satisfactory  returns.     See  pp.  17  and  18. 

3.  Forest  lands  are  bound  to  be  in  the  future  much 
more  high-jDriced  and  remunerative  than  they  are  at 
present,  because  with  the  continually  increasing  popu- 
lation in  our  State  and  country  the  demand  for  wood 
products  will  become  larger  and  influence  their  prices 
to  such  a  degree  as  we  are  now  unable  to  imagine.  The 
first  importation  of  foreign  pine  will  send  up  the  price 
of  American  pine  to  the  cost  of  production. 

Considered  solely  from  a  business  standpoint,  the  said 
features  would  render  the  possession  of  forests  greatly 
acceptable  to  corporations  and  governments,  as  these 
are  su]3posed  to  be  not  confined  to  the  short  natural  term 
of  human  life,  and,  therefore,  will  live  to  enjoy  the  full 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  forest  planting  and  forest 
management.  To  our  State  the  acquisition  of  the 
Adirondack  forests  would  be  the  more  desirable  as  this 
is  the  only  means  to  preserve  the  wooded  condition  of 
til  at  region  for  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  by  a 
benign  Providence  destined,  viz.,  to  protect  and  benefit 
the  country  in  its  physical  condition,  and  to  furnish  a 
permanent  supply  of  lumber,  timber,  and  fuel.  It  is 
true,  there  has  been  in  p.  13  expressed  a  somewhat 
different  oj^inion  in  this  regard.  But  those  lines  were 
penned  under  the  impression  that  the  imperfect  views 
about  "  forest  preservation,"  laid  down  in  the  Forestry 
Act  of  1885  would  not  so  soon  be  given  up,  and  sub- 


236  FOREST   PLANTING. 

stituted  by  sound  business  princij)les — and  nnder  those 
circumstances  every  enlargement  of  the  State  forest 
preserve  would  have  only  increased  the  public  expen- 
diture, without  even  attaining  the  object  of  the  "pre- 
servation "  of  the  State  forests. 

This  state  of  things  has  been  lately  changed  alto- 
gether, as  the  Adirondack  Park  Association  has  made 
the  introduction  of  a  systematic,  paying  management 
of  our  State  forests  the  condition  under  which  the 
acquisition  of  the  Adirondack  Park  grounds  is  to  be 
effected.  This  is  the  only  correct  and  expedient  step  to 
be  taken  in  the  matter.  For  ivithout  proper  manage- 
ment the  protection  of  luoods  from  their  many  foes,  both 
h^iman  and  elemental,  cannot  he  realized.  But  with  a 
rational  management  we  can  not  only  effect  the  fullest 
preservation  of  the  Adirondack  forests  but  we  will  also 
lay  the  f oundatioii  for  a  future  revenue  which  will  in  the 
course  of  time  not  only  blot  out  the  capital  invested  in 
the  acquisition  and  the  management  of  the  forests,  but 
also  create  a  source  upon  which  the  people  may  draw 
for  helping  to  defray  the  public  expenses. 

As  the  projected  enlargement  of  the  State  forest 
domain  and  the  preparatory  measures  necessary  for  the 
introduction  of  systematic  forest  culture  involve  a  large 
amount  of  money  and  labor,  it  is  but  just  that  a  consid- 
erable number  of  intelligent  and  public-spirited  citizens 
should  be  enrolled  to  fulfill  a  patriotic  duty  in  which 
they  themselves  have  not  only  to  lay  aside  eveiy  shadow 
of  partisan  spirit  but  also  to  secure  by  proper  legislation 
the  adoption  of  such  principles  and  rules  for  the  future 
organization  and  management  that  mere  political  influ- 
ences will  never  be  permitted  to  interfere  with  the  tech- 
nical management.  If  we  ever  shall  enjoy  the  benefits 
justly  expected  from  the  projected  public  acquisition. 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS.  227 

we  have  to  subject  the  entire  institution  to  some  such 
rigid  civil  service  rules  as  exist  in  the  Metropolitan 
Fire  Department  or  Police  Department  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  Without  such  unalterable  restrictions  the 
management  of  the  State  Forests  would  soon  become 
the  most  coveted  ground  for  political  spoil-hunters,  and 
the  State,  instead  of  expecting  an  income,  would  soon 
find  its  hoped-for  revenues  crumble  down  so  as  to  leave 
only  from  year  to  year  increasing  expenses  of  manage- 
ment. 

It  is  only  to  be  regretted  that  the  said  association  has 
thought  proper  to  assume  the  name  of  a  "  Park  "  associ- 
ation because  this  leads  to  misunderstandings  which,  as 
experience  shows,  may  prove  injurious  to  the  project  by 
provoking  the  opposition  of  our  rural  legislators.  In  a 
correspondence  which  the  author  directed  to  the  New 
York  Times,  Feb.  27,  1890,  it  was  stated  that  our  coun- 
try population  regarded  the  project  of  a  forest  park  in 
the  sense  that  its  aim  was  the  maintaining  of  woodlands 
as  a  shelter  for  game,  and  as  a  region  of  pleasure  resort 
for  those  who  can  afford  time  and  means  for  this  enjoy- 
ment. For  this  reason  even  the  harmless  provisions 
made  for  the  preservation  of  the  State  forests  in  the 
Forestry  Act  of  1885  experienced  a  strong  opposition 
in  the  Legislature,  although  no  considerable  grant  was 
demanded,  because  the  opponents  of  this  measure  repre- 
sented to  the  masses  that  such  parks  were  but  resorts 
for  rich  people,  and  that  no  regular  exploitation  of  the 
woods  and  no  felling  of  trees  would  take  place;  and 
that,  therefore,  the  growth  of  timber  for  the  supply  of 
man  would  come  to  an  end,  turning  out  very  disastrous 
to  the  local  population  that  mostly  were  subsisting  on 
the  products  of  the  woods. 

That  this  apprehension   was   well  founded   shows   a 


228  FOREST    PLANTING. 

,  correspondence  from  Lockport  of  this  State,  where  lately 
a  farmers'  meeting  was  held  in  which  the  idea  of  estab- 
lishing a  public  park  in  the  Adirondacks  was  discussed, 
and  finally  very  violently  opposed.  Manifestly,  the  old 
foes  to  the  preservation  of  our  State  forests,  who  operated 
also  against  the  tame  Forestry  Act  of  1885,  were  there 
at  work,  and  blinded  the  unsuspecting  rural  population 
by  the  linguistic  definitions  of  the  word  "  Park."  The 
H.  Y.  Times  made  to  this  meeting  the  following  very 
appropriate  remarks : 

"  There  evidently  was  a  serious  misunderstanding  of 
the  nature  of  the  case  which  calls  for  explanation  of 
this  desirable  project.  This  (park)  is  not  for  2)rivate 
uses  and  for  the  enjoyment  of  a  few  wealthy  persons 
who  may  spend  their  leisure  weeks  of  annual  vacation 
there.  It  is  for  the  public  advantage;  for  the  preserva- 
tion and  profitable  use  of  a  valuable  store  of  timber;  for 
the  preservation  and  supply  of  the  water  which  main- 
tains great  and  indispensable  channels  for  commerce 
which  have  built  up  the  Empire  State,  and  upon  which 
the  continued  prosperity  of  the  State  depends,  and  also 
for  the  favorable  effect  upon  the  climate  of  the  vicinity, 
broadly  extended,  of  a  great  source  of  rain." 

However,  when  the  projected  enlargement  of  the  State 
forests  is  secured,  and  the  management  shall  begin 
operations  in  a  business-like  way,  we  will  find  that  we 
need  a  large  tract  of  woodland,  which  has  to  be  treated 
somewhat  differently  from  the  general  forest  preserve, 
and  this  tract  should  be  distinguished  from  the  preserve 
by  naming  it  the  "  Park." 

This  park  should,  among  other  purposes,  be  devoted  : 

I.  To  the  establishment  of  a  State  nursery  for  forest 
trees. 

The  proper  preservation    of  natural  forests  requires, 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS.  229 

besides  other  operations,  the  continual  care  for  replant- 
ing areas  which  have  been  denuded  either  by  accidents 
(fire)  or  elemental  forces  (storms,  snoAv)  or  by  the  natu- 
ral course  of  tree  life.  Of  the  i^resent  State  forest  pre- 
serve there  are  several  hundred  thousands  of  acres  of 
woodlands,  which  have  been  stripped  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  forever  are  doomed  to  weeds  and  brambles 
unless  the  helping  hand  of  man  is  enlisted  into  service 
for  restocking  them.  Many  of  these  tracts  may  be  re- 
forested by  a  geaieral  cultivation  and  seeding  down  with 
the  seeds  of  trees  adapted  to  soil  and  location,  but  there 
will  remain  many  places  which  cannot  be  redeemed 
from  their  desolate  condition  unless  planted  with  seed- 
lings, and  sometimes  with  such  ones  as  have  been  once 
transplanted  in  the  nursery.  It  is  true  that  wherever 
large  tracts  are  to  bo  planted  the  nursery  should  be 
located  in  the  midst,  or  at  least  near  the  tract  to  be 
operated  on.  But  this  would  not  exclude  the  advisa- 
bility of  creating  a  j)rincipal  station  for  general  nursery 
purposes.  For  this  institute  has  not  only  the  care  of 
raising  seedlings  and  disseminating  the  knowledge  of 
improved  methods  of  forest  planting,  but  also  of  col- 
lecting the  seeds  of  forest  trees  grown  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  and  of  preserving  the  collected  seeds  till  the 
time  arrives  when  they  will  be  made  use  of.  Sometimes 
it  may  not  be  avoidable  to  buy  tree  seed  from  seed- 
dealers.  But  it  goes  without  saying  that,  to  owners  of 
large  forests,  the  most  approved  way  of  restocking  their 
denuded  wood  plots  is  to  take  the  collection  of  seeds  in 
their  own  hands,  although  this  operation  is  a  tedious 
one,  and  not  infrequently  more  expensive  than  to  buy 
the  seed  from  the  dealers. 

II.  A  Forest  School  would  be  another  institution  to  be 
established  upon  the  privileged  grounds  of  a  Forest  Park. 


230  FOREST   PLANTING. 

With  the  introduction  of  systematic  forestry  men 
trained  in  all  branches  of  forest  planting,  and  in  the 
protection  and  exploitation  of  forests  will  be  required 
in  great  numbers.  Referring  to  what  has  been  said  on 
this  subject  in  Chapter  V.,  Part  I.,  the  following  re- 
marks may  serve  to  give  some  more  useful  hints  in  this 
regard. 

For  the  proper  management  of  large  forests  there  are 
required  two  classes  of  officials,  besides  common  labor- 
ers, viz.:  1.  The  persons  of  the  forest  administration 
service  occupying  the  higher  places  in  the  dejiartment, 
supervising  the  entire  business  and  giving  directions  to 
the  local  officials  in  the  forest  service  for  the  suitable 
methods  of  cultivating  and  exploiting  the  several 
wooded  tracts  entrusted  to  the  care  of  subordinate  offi- 
cials as  foresters  and  their  assistants.  2.  These  subordi- 
nate officials,  although  occupying  the  inferior  places  in 
the  service,  are  with  us  in  the  present  transitory  stage 
of  converting  the  wild  woods  into  cultivated  forests  of 
the  highest  importance,  because  the  principal  work 
during  the  first  years  will,  besides  the  engineers'  work 
of  laying  out  and  rendering  passable  the  necessary 
roads  through  the  woods,  consist  of  cleaning  and  clear- 
ing out  the  thickets,  felling  off  mature  and  overmature 
trees,  removing  them  out  of  the  woods  and  jDreparing 
them  for  the  auction  sale  and  the  market,  putting  the 
denuded  woodlands  in  the  proper  condition  for  the  recep- 
tion of  seeds  or  plants,  and  reforesting  them. 

AVith  the  further  development  of  the  profession,  to 
be  built  up  by  introducing  scientific  forestry  in  this 
State  and  country,  there  will  undoubtedly  appear  forest 
officials  of  the  class  No.  1,  who  have  received  besides 
practical  instruction  in  the  culture  and  management  of 
forests,  an  university  education  to  fit  them  for  the  for- 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  231 

est  administration  service,  and  to  apply  their  widened 
knowledge  and  experience  for  the  benefit  of  the  State 
by  increasing  the  revenues  of  the  forests  entrusted  to 
their  care.  But,  at  present,  we  need,  jjar  excellence,  men 
of  class  3,  practically  instructed  in  the  everyday  rou- 
tine of  systematic  forest  management,  after  having 
received  the  education  of  the  average  graduate  from  a 
country  school.  To  impart  such  an  education  and  to 
accustom  the  students  to  a  strict  moral  conduct  and  a 
rigid,  nearly  military  discipline,  without  which  no  large 
forest  can  be  managed  successfully,  the  immediate 
establishment  of  Vi  forest  school  within  the  Adirondack 
Park  should  be  insisted  upon.  There  young  men  be- 
tween 18  and  22  years  old  should  receive  an  elementary 
education  and  practical  instruction  under  the  direction 
of  an  approved  forester.*  This  school  should  be  located 
at  a  place  where  the  teacher,  for  purposes  of  practical 
instruction,  can  have  at  his  disposition  an  extended  area 
consisting  of  standing  wood,  denuded  woodlands,  and  a 
well-equipped  nursery.  The  students  should  be  com- 
pelled to  devote  half  of  the  time  of  their  education  for 
performing  every  manual  Avork  that  is  required  to  be 
done  in  the  proper  management  and  exploitation  of 
forests.  Referring  as  for  the  rest  to  what  has  been  said 
in  this  regard  on  page  33,  sqq.,  it  might  not  be  amiss  to 
remember  the  experiences  we  have  made  with  our  agri- 
cultural  schoolsf   and   not  to  raise  in  this  school  the 


*  We  need  not  to  fear  a  want  of  scieatifically  educated  foresters. 
The  reverse  naight  come  nearer  to  the  truth.  See  what  is  said  about 
this  subject  on  page  142,  note. 

tThe  last  report  of  the  Cornell  University  goes  to  show  that,  out  of 
a  total  number  of  1,300  students,  oidy  thirty-one  are  inscribed  in  the 
Agricultural  Department.  "  This  meagre  showing  is,"  as  the  Practical 
Farmer  lately  said,  •'  not  the  result  of  poor  or  unqualified  professors 


232  FOREST   PLANTING. 

standard  of  professional  education  higher  than  is  nec- 
essary for  the  executive  staff  of  the  forest  dej^artment. 
However,  should  there  be  found  talented  scholars  with 
higher  aspirations,  occasion  should  be  given  to  them 
after  completing  the  full  course  in  this  school  to  enter 
a  college  for  obtaining  a  higher  standard  of  education 
to  fit  them  for  the  higher  walks  of  the  profession. 

III.  The  State  Park  should  also  afford  an  opportunity 
for  creating  an  experiment  station  for  forest  trees. 

Our  knowledge  of  whe)-e,7vhaf,a,nd  how  to  plant  trees 
is,  as  the  late  Dr.  John  Warder  said,  very  im^ierfect. 
There  are  only  two  ways  to  complete  this  knowledge, 
viz.,  either  by  experience  or  by  experiment.  In  Europe 
it  took  more  than  a  century  to  organize  a  system  of 
scientific  forestry,  and  since  that  time  the  experiment 
stations  are  fully  engaged  in  disclosing  the  many  dark 
points  which  remain  in  this  science  still  doubtful,  in 
spite  of  the  excellent  management  of  the  European 
forests  by  erudite  and  capable  men.     Now,  if  we  intro- 


and  instructors,  for  they  arc  the  best  that  can  be  found.  The  trouble 
lies  in  the  system.  There  is  a  natural  antagonism  between  agricul- 
tural and  classical  students,  and  they  will  never  in  any  manner  coal- 
esce; the  former  being  in  the  minority,  the  latter  will  drive  them  by 
sneers  and  taunts  either  into  a  strictly  literary  course,  or  send  them 
home  in  disgust."  What  should  be  done  and  can  be  done  to  avoid  such 
undesirable  condition  may  be  seen  in  the  little  "  Storrs  Agricultural 
School  "  of  Connecticut.  This  is  a  purely  agricultural  school,  costing 
but  a  few  thousand  dollars  every  year,  and  has  many  more  students 
than  the  Cornell  University  has  in  its  agricultural  department.  The 
graduates  of  this  school  go  all  back  to  the  plow  aud  realize  practically 
the  benefits  of  theh-  education,  while  most  of  the  fem  graduates  from 
the  Cornell  agricultural  depa,rtment  enter  city  and  business  life.  Let 
us  have  a  little  forest  school  in  the  Adirondacks  for  educating  the  men 
required  to  perform  the  practical  operations  in  the  management  of 
the  State  forests.  Cornell  University  may  rise  to  educate  the  higher 
officials  who,  later  on,  will  be  in  demand  for  the  administration  of 
our  State  forests,  and  who  should  possess  an  university  education. 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS.  233 

duce  a  systematic  management  of  our  forests  with  help- 
ers who  are  nearly  all  crude  lay  hands,  it  devolves  upon 
us  the  more  the  duty  of  establishing  experiment  sta- 
tions as  the  objects  of  our  investigations  are  by  far  more 
numerous  and  complicated  than  those  treated  in  the  Eu- 
ropean stations.  The  principles  of  vegetable  growth 
being  everywhere  alike,  we  can  obtain  much  useful 
information  by  the  instructions  of  the  European  forest- 
ers. But  as  our  climate  and  physical  conditions  differ 
much  from  those  prevailing  upon  the  Eastern  hemi- 
sphere, and  as  these  circumstances  effect  different  results 
in  forest  culture,  we  have  to  make  careful  observations 
and  experiments  ourselves,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  necessary  to  determine  the  most  important 
steps  in  the  rational  management  of  forests.  See  the 
remarks  on  page  53  i.  f. 

An  experiment  station  in  the  Adirondack  Park  would 
be  the  more  beneficial  for  the  whole  country,  as  we 
would  be  able  to  attach  to  it  a  large  tract  of  woodland 
and  an  extensive  nursery,  thus  combining  the  experi- 
ments in  the  forest  with  those  in  the  field  (nursery). 
We  would  be  able  in  the  course  of  time,  by  careful 
measurements  of  trees,  to  determine:  the  rates  of 
growth  in  different  species  of  trees,  at  different  periods 
of  life,  and  could  answer  the  question  whether  it  would 
pay  to  devote  a  certain  area  to  forest  culture. 

We  could  furthermore  determine  the  technical  and 
financial  value  of  the  different  species,  their  wood  accre- 
tions under  different  conditions,  and  at  a  certain  age, 
and  would  then  be  in  a  position  to  decide  on  the  most 
desirable  selection  of  trees  from  a  financial  point  of 
view.  We  could  then  answer  many  questions  which  are 
at  present  still  entirely  wrapped  up  in  darkness,  or  very 
doubtful,  such  as  regarding  the  conditions  under  which 


234  FOREST   PLANTING. 

the  different  kinds  of  trees  grow  best  and  form  the  most 
wood,  some  requiring  close  and  some  more  open  plant- 
ing, some  needing  nurses  and  some  not,  some  requiring 
much  light,  while  others  get  along  well  in  the  shade. 
All  these  points,  and  many  others  connected  with  the 
various  forest  cultures  in  seeding  and  planting  forest 
trees,  which  are  so  important  for  the  systematic  manage- 
ment of  forests  and  not  yet  settled,  should  be  attended 
to  and  by  experiments  determined,  with  the  help  of  ten- 
tative processes. 

IV.  The  Park  idea  would,  however,  be  still  more  ap- 
propriate if  it  was  made  subservient  to  another  economic 
consideration,  viz.,  to  the  preservation  of  the  game 
within  the  Adirondack  region.  Under  the  present  sys- 
tem of  administration  pot-hunting  in  the  Adirondacks 
will,  from  year  to  year  increase;  and,  unless  there  is  set 
apart  an  extended  district  where  game  may  rest  and 
breed  undisturbed,  the  nobler  species  of  game  will  soon 
be  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  was  only  by  declaring  some 
of  her  mountains  (Freiberge)  exempted  from  the  incur- 
sions of  hunters  and  trappers  that  Switzerland  succeeded 
in  saving  the  beautiful  chamois  from  total  extinction. 
If  we  take  similar  precautions  and  set  apart  a  large 
continuous  Avooded  tract  as  a  park,  we  could  establish 
it  at  the  same  time  as  an  asylum  for  the  much-persecuted 
game,  in  which  hunting  and  trapping  game  should  be 
prohibited  under  the  heaviest  penalties.  Then  we 
would  not  only  preserve  a  stock  of  the  pretty  game  for 
our  successors  without  being  compelled  to  keep  a  costly 
deer  park,  we  would  at  the  same  time  protect  people 
who  visit  the  park  for  pleasure  or  health  against  the 
sinister  stray  shots  of  the  pot-hunters  to  which  visitors 
of  the  Adirondacks  are  now  exposed  at  all  times  and  in 
all  places. 


NATIVE  TREES  OJF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK. 

A  list  of  native  trees  of  New  York,  published  in  the 
last  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Forest  Commission,  is 
as  follows.  Tliose  marked  with  an  asterisk  being  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  projected  Adirondack  Park  : 


Willow  or  peach-leaved  oak. 

Black  Jack  or  barren  oak. 

*Black  or  yellow-bark  oak. 

Scarlet  oak. 

*Red  oak. 

Pin  or  swamp  Spanish  oak. 

Post  or  box  white  oak. 

Over-cup  white  or  bur  oak. 

Mossy-cup  oak. 

White  oak. 

Swamp  white  oak. 

Rock  chestnut  oak. 

Chestnut  or  yellow  oak. 

Shellbnrk  or  sha^bark  hickory. 

Mockernut  or  whiteheart  hickory. 

Pignut  or  brown  hickory. 

Bitternut  or  swamp  hickory 

*Sugar  maple  oi-  hard  maple. 

*Blaek  sugar  maple. 

*Soft  or  swamp  niai)l.\ 

*White  or  silver  maple. 

Ash-leaved  maple  or  box  elder, 

*White  birch. 

*Canoe  or  paper  birch. 

*Yellow  birch. 

*Black  or  chen-y  birch. 

*Red  birch. 

*Red  beech. 

*White  ash. 

*Black  ash. 

Green  ash. 

*  White  elm. 

Slippery  or  red  elm. 

Cork  elm  or  Thomas's  elm. 

*Quaking  aspen  or  small  poplar. 

*American  aspen  or  poplar. 

*Virginia  or  necklace  poplar. 

Cottonwood  or  downy  poplar. 

*Balsam  poplar  or  tncmahac. 

*Balmof-Gilead. 

Chestnut. 

Horse  chestnut. 

*Arbor  vitag  or 


*Black  willow. 
Yellow  willow. 
Black  walnut. 
Butternut. 
Locust. 
Honey  locust. 
*Bl:ick  or  wild  cherry. 
Sweet  gum  or  liquidambar. 
Button  wood  or  sycamore. 
Persimmon. 

Pepperidge  or  sour  gum. 
Nettle  tree  or  hackberry. 
Red  mulberry. 
White  mulberry. 
Kentucky  coffee  tree. 
Magnolia  or  cucumber. 
*Basswood  or  linden. 
Tulip  tree  or  whitewood. 
*Ironwood  or  hop  hornbeam. 
*Hornbeam  or  water  beech. 
*Floweriag  dogwood. 
Dogwood. 
Judas  tree. 
Holly. 
Sassafras. 
*Black  thorn. 

*Mountain  ash  or  rowan  tree. 
Sweet-scented  crab. 
Sheepberry. 
*Stag-horn  sumach. 
*Wild  red  or  pin  cherry. 
*White  or  Weymouth  pine. 
*Pitch  pine. 
*Yellow  pine. 
*Scrub  pine. 

*Black  or  double  spruce, 
*White  or  single  spruce. 
*Balsam  or  balsam  fir. 
*Hemlock. 

*Tamarack  or  hackmatack,  or  larch. 
*Red  cedar. 
White  cedar, 
white  cedar. 


INDEX. 


Abies  pectinata,  picea ..110 

Acacia 50 

Acer  pseudo  platanus 84 

"    campestre 85  | 

Adirondack  Wilderness,   16,  9,  11 ! 

13,  19,  157 

"  Park  Association,  139 

2:i2,  238  , 

Adriatic  Gulf .218  1 

Adventitious  Buds 64  I 

Aforestiug  Mountains... .182 

"  Sand  Wastes .171  ; 

Agriculture 147  ; 

Ailanthus 215 

Alder 50,  66,  86,  88,  130,  153  I 

"      Grey 219  j 

Alluvial  Soil,  Planting  on 147 

Arbor  Day 105 

Arundo  arenaria 171  I 

Ash 83,  50,  82,  153,  18S 

Aspen  Tree 50,  130,  219 

Asylum,  for  Game 222,  234  I 

Austria-Hungaria 218 

Avena  elatior 217 

Ax,  Short-handled  for  Planting  91 

Bacilli,  Rock  Devouring 213 

Balsam  Fir 153 

Basket  Making 148 

Bass  wood. 89 

Beachgrass .181 

Beaver  Meadows... 157  , 

Beavers 122  i 

Beds ....151,1531 

Beech.. 81,49,50,153,186,212 

Betulace:fi 86 

Birch,  97,  86,  50,  54,  90,  109, 135,  219 

Black  River. 9 

"     Ash. ...153 

Block  System 56,  141 1 

Bogs .-.151  I 

Border  or  Bed  Culture 45,  46 

Bottom  Lands 153 

Bromus  ercctus 217 

Brush-Harrow 77,  2 1 3 

Buckwheat 166,  178 

Burning  Over  the  Soil 165 

Burnt  Places 215  | 

Button  Wood 67  [ 

Calamagrostis  arenaria 118,  217  j 


Capillary  Attraction 162 

Carbonate  of  Lime 159 

Carbonaceus  humus 154 

Catal  pa 89 

Catskill  Mountains 16,  11,  19 

Cedar 186 

Central  Park.. 215 

Chamois  . .  _ .234 

Chemical    Actions   within    the 

Soil 44 

Chestnut 49 

Civil  Service ..227 

Cleaning  Forests _  110 

Clover  Culture 20,21 

Colleges  of  Forestry  and  Agri- 
culture   31 

Commons 16 

Conifers 47,  67,  71,  73,  93 

Contre  feu 136 

Cooper  Material 173,  174 

Copse  or  Coppice  Culture,  64,  132 
174 

Corn -marigold 153 

Cornell  University 232 

Cotton  G rasses 154 

County  Schools 231 

Crab-apple 215 

Cuttings 66 

Dams,  Dikes 195,  196, 197 

Danish,   Government 175 

Deciduous  Trees... 69,  93 

Deep  Plowing 40,  41 

Densely  Foliaged  Trees 49,  52 

Dominant  Trees 112 

Downs-Dunes.. 6,  23,  171,  176,  177 

Downward  Step  (of  trees) 186 

Dragon  Fly ...120 

Drainage 43,  160 

Elm,  Seed-bed  for,  50,  85,  83,  153 
187 

Elymus  arenaria 171 

Entailments 28 

Erica,  Family 153 

Esparsette 217 

Evergreens 106 

Experiments  in  the  Forests 233 

"      Field 233 

Experiment  Stations,  15,30, 222,232 

Extraction  of  Tree  Seeds 71 

235 


.236 


FOREST    PLANTING. 


Felling  of  Trees 114 

Fens 157 

Fires,  Forest 15,  134,  137,  224 

Firs ...-49,  50,  155,  186 

Forest  Culture. 9,  11,  15,25,  30, 146 

"      Economy 12 

' '      Farm  at  Barres 32,  33 

"       Gardening 62 

"      Nursery ... .  15,  142,  220,  2:>2 

"      Officials ...1 230 

"       Park. ..228 

"       Planting 9,36 

"      Preservation. -..4,  5,  13,  14 
"      Revenues  in  Germany  17, 18 

"      School 15,29,32,230 

Forestry 3,  176,  222,  230 

Forester 141,142 

Forkiness  of  Trees 94 

Foxes 119 

France,  Forestry 176 

Fr;iternizing  Trees 51 

Freiberg  in  Switzerland 234 

Frost  Damaging 128,  129 

Furze 178 

Game,  Injurious  to  Trees 123 

Germinating     Power    of    Tree 

Seeds .73 

Gorse 178 

Governed  Trees 112 

Grenadiers,  The 35 

Hand-harrow .105 

Hand-roller. .160 

Hard  pan 168 

Hawthorn 219 

Heaths 42,  154,  157 

Heath-pan 108 

Heather 178 

Hemlock 155,  186 

High  Moors,     Forest    Planting 

on ...156,  158 

Hill  Planting 96,  97,98,  152 

Holcus  mollis. 217 

Hornbeam 89,49,  50,  130 

Hough,  F.  B 100 

Hudson  River.. ..     9 

Humic  Acid 42,154, 156, 159 

Ichneumon  Flies 121 

Inundations  in  Forests 132 

Iron  Oxide 1 68 

Irrigation 43,  200 

Jay' 121 

Juniper. 1 72,  219 

Lady-birds 120 

Landes  of  Sologne 170 

Landes  of  Gascony 172 

Larch 50,  180,  216 

Layers  (sprouts) , 06 


Lichens 153 

Light-needing  Trees. .52,  117,  153 

Lion  Beetles 120 

Location  of  Seed-beds  for  For- 
est-trees   .90 

Locust 89 

Long  Island  Sands .175 

Lumber. 153 

Maple 83,  84,  50,67,  153,  186 

Martens 119 

Marshes 151 

Maritime  Pine 181 

Mice 119,  122 

Miller  Joaquin 1 

Mixed  Forest-Planting 52 

Mohawk  River, 9 

Moles .118 

Moorlands 45,  158,  154 

Mosses ..153,  156,  158 

Moss-lands 156 

.Mountain   Waters,   RegulatiDn 

of 192 

Muck 154 

Muentz,  Prof 213 

Mulching  Planted  Trees 108 

M}  rica  cerif  era 181 

Myrtle   Bush 181 

Natural  Meadows. 1 57 

Natural  Moors 165 

Natural  Reproduction  of  Woods, 

64,65 

Natural  Regeneration 64,  65 

New  Jersey  Sands 175 

Nursery,  Forest....  15, 142,  220, 222 
Nut-bearing    Trees,    Seed-beds 

for.... 79 

N.  Y.  Times  (Paper) 218 

Oaks 50,135,  153,  169 

Ohio,  State  Forestry  Bureau  Re- 
port   34 

Orstein ...168 

Osier 148 

Osier,  Red 148 

Overforester 110 

Packhard,  Dr 126 

Paper-Making  Material 174 

Parasites 121 

Parent  Trees 66 

Park  Commissioners 10 

Peat  Bogs 154 

"    Mosses 156 

Peaty  Soils 45,  46,  159,  105 

Peroxide  of  Lime 159 

Pfrieme 178 

Pickhardt,  Wm.,  New  York ....  80 

Pine,  47,  CO,  90.  109,  130,  153.  172 

177,  181 


INDEX. 


337 


Pine  Barrens 168 

"    Black  Austrian.. 212,  215,  219 

"     FirLeuved 219 

"    of  Aleppo 216 

"    Scotch 212 

"    Wild  or  Dwarf 219.220 

Pimipinella 217 

Planting  Forest  Trees. ..90-98,  188 

with  Ball 95 

"        without  Ball 96 

Plains,  Forest  Planting  on 146 

Plenter  Management 60 

Pollards : .132,  147 

Poplar 89,  66,  109,  135,  172 

Porcup  ines 118 

Pot-hunters... 234 

Preparatory  Measures  for  Ee- 

stockiiigMountaitis 190 

Preservation  of  Tree  Seeds 70 

Prevention  of  Injuries  to  Trees, 

123,  125 

Protection  of  Trees 109 

'•  "   Forest  Soil 116 

"  "    Forests 118 

Protective  Forests.  ...13.  22.  23.  24 

Protoxide  of  Lime 159 

Pyrites  134 

Quercus  ilex  or  sempervirens..  80 

Rabatten  Culture 45 

Rahbit. ....123 

Railroads  Passing  Forests 225 

Ravines 199 

Reforesting  Sand-wastes 170 

Regulation  of  Rivers 201 

Removal  of  Tree  Branches 115 

Replanting,  Artiticial 14 

Reports  of  Forest  Commission. 4,  5 

Reproduction  of  Woods 14,  33 

Restocking  High  Mountains... 213 
Right  of  Eminent  Dom.aiu...l3,  27 

Roses,  Wild. .215 

Safety-strips 135,  136 

Salicylic  Acid... 148 

Salix  purpurea 148 

"     viminalis 148 

Sand-reed 178 

"    Wastes 168,172 

Schneissen 60,   137,  141 

Seeds  for  Forest  Trees 68 

Seed-beds  for  Foi'cst  Trees.  _  .75,  90 
Seeding  Forest  Trees... .74,  80, 188 

Seelam  1,  Island 1 75 

Shade-Enduring  Trees 52,  117 


Shelter  Forests. 22,24 

Shifting  Sands 167 

Slirew-mouses 118 

Skunks lis 

SorbeTree .219 

Sparrows 121 

Spruce 49,  90,  153,  156,  219 

Squirrel 123 

Staddels 68 

State  Control  over  Forests... 23,  24 

State  Forests....  16,  11,21,  144,  223 

State  Forest  Commission  3,  4,  10 

157 

"     Troops 35 

Statistical    Bureau    for  Forest 

Matters 22 

Steam  Plow 42 

Storrs  Agricultural  School 232 

St.  Paul,  Chamber  of  Commerce  34 

Subdued  trees 113 

Sun  Heat,  Damaging 130 

Swam  J)  Hickory 158 

Swamps 151,  154 

Sweating,  Tree  Seeds 69 

Sycamore 67 

Systems  of  Forest  Management, 

55-64 

Tanner  Materials 1 73, 175 

Thinning  out 14,  110,  111 

Thin  f oliaged  trees 50,  52 

Tidswilde  Ilegn 174 

Tiger  Beetles 120 

Timber 153 

Torrents,  Formation  of... 191 

Transplanting  Large  Trees  101, 108 

Trap  Trees 126 

Tree  Nurseries 92 

Tuf  t-ti  passes 154 

Tulip  Tree 89 

Turf. 1.55,166 

Walnut 49 

Warder,  Dr.  John  A., 53 

Water  Table 160 

Weirs 19 

Wild  Forests 145 

Wild  Woods 145 

Willow.  ...88,  66.  109,  147,  149,  219 

Willow  Plantations 149 

Winter  Dock 153 

Wood,  Mantel 129,  131 

Wooded  Tracts ^6 

Woods 140,  144 

Young  Plantations,  Care  of 109 


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Parsons  on  the  Eose. 

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Ileinricli's  Window  Ilower  Garden. 

The  author  is  a  practical  florist,  and  this  enterprising  volume  cm- 
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Liautard's  Chart  of  the  Age  of  the  Domestic  Animals. 

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Pedder's  Land  Measurer  for  Farmers. 

A  convenient  Pocket  Companion,  showing  at  once  the  contents  of 
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feet  either  way,  with  various  other  useful  farm  tables.    Cloth,  18mo: 

.60 

How  to  Plant  and  What  to  Do  with  the  Crops. 

With  other  valuable  hints  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard.  By 
Mark  W.  Johnson.  Illustrated.  Comtents  :  Times  for  Sowim;  Seeds  : 
Covering  Seeds;  Field  Crops;  Garden  or  Vegetable  Seeds,  Sweet 
Herbs,  etc.;  Tree  Seeds  ;  Flower  Seeds  ;  Fruit  Trees;  Distances  Apart 
for  Fruit  Trees  and  Shrubs  ;  Profitable  Farming  ;  Green  or  Manuring 
Crops  ;  Pioot  Crops;  Forage  Plants  ;  What  to  do  with  the  Crops  ;  The 
Kotation  of  Crops;  Varieties;  Paper  Covers,  post-paid. 50 

Your  Plants. 

Plain  and  Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment  of  Tender  and  Hardy 
Plants  in  the  Huuse  and  in  the  Garden.  By  James  Sheehan.  Thn 
above  title  well  describes  the  character  of  the  work — "  Plain  and  Prac- 
tical." The  author,  a  commercial  florist  and  gardener,  has  endeavored, 
in  tijis  work,  to  answer  the  many  questions  asked  by  his  customers,  as 
to  the  proper  treatment  of  plants.  The  book  shows  all  through  that 
its  auttior  is  a  practical  man,  and  he  writes  as  one  with  a  large  store 
of  experience.  The  work  better  meets  the  wants  of  the  amateur  who 
grows  a  few  plants  in  the  window,  or  has  a  small  flower  Garden,  than 
a  larger  treatise  intended  for  those  who  cultivate  plants  upon  a  moro 
cxtended'scale.    Price,  post-paid,  paper  covers 40 

Husmann's  American  Grape-Growing-  and  Wine-Making. 

By  George  Husmann  of  Talcoa  vineyards,  Napa,  California.  New  and 
enlarged  edition.  With  contributions  from  well-known  grape-growers, 
giving  a  wide  rantre  of  experience.  The  author  of  this  book  is  a 
recognized   uthority  ou  the  subject.     Cloth,  12mo... 1.50 

The  Scientific  Angler. 

A  general  and  instructive  work  on  Artistic  Angling,  by  the  late  David 
Foster.  Complied  by  his  Sons.  With  an  Introductory  Chapter  and 
Copious  Foot  Notes,"  by  William  C.  Harris,  Editor  of  the  "  American 
Angler."    Cloth,  12mo 1.50 


0  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Keeping  One  Cow. 

A  collection  of  Prize  Essays,  and  selections  from  a  number  of  other 
Essays,  with  editorial  notes,  suggestions,  etc.  This  book  gives  tho 
latest  information,  and  in  a  clear  and  condensed  form,  upon  the  man- 
agement of  a  single  Milch  Cow.  Illustrated  with  full-page  engrav- 
ings of  the  most  famous  dairy  cows.  Recently  published.  Cloth, 
12mo - 1.00 

Law's  Veterinary  Adviser 

A  Guide  to  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  This  is  one  of  the  best  works  on  this  subject,  and  is  especi- 
ally designed  to  supply  the  need  of  the  busy  American  Farmer,  who 
can  rarely  avail  himself  of  the  advice  of  a  Scientific  Veterinarian.  It 
is  brought  up  to  date  and  treats  of  the  Prevention  of  Disease,  as  well 
as  of  tlie  Remedies.    By  Prof.  Jas.  Law.     Cloth,  Crown  8vo 3.00 

Guenon's  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows. 

A  Treatise  f)n  the  Bovine  Species  in  General.  An  entirely  new  trans- 
lation of  the  last  editii.n  of  this  popular  and  instructive  book.  By 
Thos.  J.  Hand,  Secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club.  With 
over  100  Illustrations,  especially  engraved  for  this  work.    Cloth,  12mo. 

1.00 

The  Cider  Maker's  Eandbook. 

A  complete  guide  for  making  and  keeping  pure  cider.  By  J.  M.  Trow- 
bridge.    Fully  Illustrated.     Cloth,  12mo.. 1.00 

Long's  Ornamental  Gardening  for  Americans. 

A  treatise  on  Beautifying  Homes,  Rural  Districts,  and  Cemeteries.  A 
plain  and  practical  work  at  a  moderate  price,  with  numerous  illus- 
trations, and  instructions  so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily  followed. 
By  Elias  A.  Long.     Landscape  Architect.     Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo. 

2.00 

The  Dogs  of  Great  Britain,  America  and  Other  Countries. 

New,  enlarged  and  revised  edition.  Their  breedingj  training  and 
management,  in  health  and  disease  ;  comprising  all  the  essential  parts 
of  the  two  standard  works  on  the  dog,  by  "  Stonehenge, "  thereby  fur- 
nishing for  82  what  once  cost  $11.25.  Contains  Lists  of  all  Premiums 
given  at  the  last  Dog  Shows.  It  Describes  the  Best  Game  and  Hunt- 
ing Grounds  in  America.  Contains  over  One  Hundred  Beautiful  En- 
gravings, embracing  most  noted  Dogs  in  both  Continents,  making  to- 
gether, with  Chapters  by  American  Writers,  the  most  Complete  Dog 
Book  ever  ijublished.     Cloth,  12mo - 2.00 

Stewart's  Feeding  Animals. 

By  Elliot  W.  Stewart.  A  new  and  valuable  practical  work  upon  the 
laws  of  animal  growth,  specially  applied  to  the  rearing  and  feeding 
horses,  cattle,  diary  cows,  sheep  and  swine,     illustrated.     Cloth,  12mo. 

2.00 

How  to  Co-operate. 

A  Manual  for  Co-operators.  By  Herbert  Myrick.  This  book  describes 
the  how  rather  than  the  wherefore  of  co-operation.  In  other  words  it 
tells  how  to  manage  a  co-operative  store,  farm  or  factory,  and  co-op- 
erative dairying,  banking  and  fire  insurance,  and  co-operative  farmers' 
and  women's  exchanges  for  both  buying  and  selhng.  The  directions 
given  are  based  on  the  actual  experience  of  successful  co-operative  en- 
terprises in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  character  and  useful- 
ness of  the  book  commend  it  to  the  attention  of  .".11  men  and  women 
who  desire  to  better  their  condition,    12mo.    Cloth..,., 1.50 


STANDARD    COOKS.  7 

Batty' s  Practical  Taxidermy  and  Home  Decoration. 

By  Josei)h  II.  Batty,  taxidermist  for  the  government  surveys  and 
many  colleges  and  museums  in  the  United  Slates.  An  entirely  new 
and  complete  as  vfcW  as  autlientic  worlv  on  taxidermy — giving  in 
detail  full  dh'ections  for  collecting  and  mounting  animals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, fish,  insects,  and  general  objects  of  natural  history.  125  illus- 
trations.   Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Stewart's  Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Garden,  and  Orchard. 

New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  This  work  is  offered  to  those  American 
Farmers,  and  oiher  cultivators  cf  the  soil,  who  from  painful  expe- 
rience can  readily  appreciate  the  losses  which  result  fro.nthe  scarcity 
of  water  at  critical  periods.  By  Ilenry  Stewart.  Fully  illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow. 

New  Ecjition,  entirely  rewritten.  A  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  Compo- 
sition, Structure,  and  Life  of  the  Plant.  Revised  Edition.  This  booic 
is  a  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  agricultural  plants,  tlieir  composition, 
their  structure,  and  modes  of  development  and  growth  ;  of  the  com- 
plex organization  cf  plants,  and  the  use  of  the  parts  ;  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  the  food  of  plants  obtained  both  from  the  air  and  the 
Boil.  The  book  is  an  invaluable  one  to  all  real  students  of  agricul- 
ture. With  numerous  illustrations  and  tables  of  analysis.  By  Pi'of. 
Samuel  W.  Johnson,  of  Yale  College.     Cloth,  12mo 3.00 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed. 

A  treatise  on  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Soil,  as  related  in  the  Nutrition 
of  Agricultural  Plants  The  volume — ihc  companion  and  complement 
to  "  How  Crops  Grow," — has  been  welcomed  by  those  who  appreciate 
scientific  aspects  of  agriculture.  Illustrated.  By  Prof.  Samuel  W. 
Johnson.     Cloth,  12mo 3.00 

Warington's  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 

Treating  with  the  utmost  clearness  and  conciseness,  and  in  the  most 
popular  manner  jiossible,  of  the  relations  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture, 
and  providing  a  welcome  manual  for  those,  who,  while  not  having 
time  to  systematically  study  Chemistry,  will  gladly  have  such  an  idea 
as  this  gives  them  of  its  relation  to  operations  on  the  farm.  By  R. 
Warington,  F.  C.  S.     Cloth,  12mo.. 1.00 

French's  Farm  Drainage. 

The  Principles,  Process,  and  Effects  of  Draining  Land,  with  Stones, 
Wood,  Ditch-plows,  Open  Ditches,  and  especially  with  Ties;  includ- 
ing Tables  of  Rainfall,  Evaporation,  Filteration,  Excavation,  Capacity 
of  Pipes,  cost  and  number  to  the  acre.  By  Judge  French,  of  New 
llampshu-e.     Cloth,  ]2mo 1.50 

Hunter  and  Trapper, 

The  best  modes  of  Hunting  and  Trapping  are  fully  explained,  and 
Foxes,  Deer,  Bears,  etc.-,  fall  into  his  traps  readily  by  following  his 
directions.  By  Halsey  Thrasher,  an  old  and  experienced  sportsman. 
Cloth,  12mo 75 

The  American  Merino.    For  Wool  or  for  Mutton. 

A  practical  and  most  valuable  work  on  the  selection,  care,  breeding 
and  diseases  of  the  Merino  sheep,  in  all  sections  of  the  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  full  and  exhaustive  treatise  upon  this  one  breed  of 
sheep.    By  Stephen  Powers.    Cloth,  12mo 1.50 


8  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Armatage's  Every  Man  His  Own  Horse  Doctor, 

By  Prof.  George  Aimata<re,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S.  A  valuable  and  compre- 
hensive guide  for  both  the  professional  and  general  reader  with  the 
fullest  and  latest  information  regarding  all  diseases,  local  injuries, 
lameness,  operations,  poisons,  the  dispeiisatorv,  etc  ,  etc.,  with  practi- 
cal anatomical  and  surgical  Illustrations.  New  Edition.  Together 
with  Blaine's  "  Veterinary  Art,"  and  numerous  recipes.  One  large 
8vo.  volume,  830  pages,  half  morocco. 7.50 

Dadd's  Modern  Horse  Doctor. 

Containing  Practical  Observations  on  the  Causes,  Nature,  and  Treat- 
ment of  Diseases  and  Lameness  of  Horses— embracing  recent  and  im- 
proved Methods,  according  to  an  enlightened  system  of  Veterinary 
Practice,  for  Preservation  and  Restoration  of  Health.  Illustrated. 
By  Geo.  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.  V.  S.,  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

The  Family  Horse. 

Its  Stabling,  Care,  and  Feeding.  By  Geo.  A.  Martin.  A  Practical 
Manual,  full  of  the  most  useful  information.  Illustrated.  Cloth, 
12mo - 1.00 

Sander's  Horse  Breeding. 

Being  the  general  principles  of  Heredity  applied  to  the  Business  of 
Breeding  Horses  and  the  Management  of  Stallions,  Brood  Mares  and 
■foals.  I'he  book  embraces  all  that  the  breeder  should  know  in  regard 
to  the  selection  of  stock,  management  of  the  stallion,  broodmare,  and 
foal,  and  treatment  of  diseases  peculiar  to  breeding  animals.  By  J. 
H.  Sanders.     12mo,  cloth.. ■; 3.00 

Coburn's  Swine  Husbandry. 

New,  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  The  Breeding,  Rearing  and 
Management  of  Swine,  and  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  their 
Diseases.  It  is  the  fullest  and  freshest  compendium  relating  to  Swine 
Breeding  yet  offered.     By  F.  D.  Coburn.     Cloth,  12mo 1.75 

Dadd's  American  Cattle  Doctor. 

By  George  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.,  Veterinary  Practitioner.  To  help  every 
man  to  be  his  own  cattle-doctor;  giving  the  necessary  information 
for  preserving  the  health  and  curing' the  diseases  of  oxen,  cows,  sheep, 
and  swine,  ^nth  a  great  variety  of  original  recipes,  and  valuable  infor- 
mation on  farm  and  dairy  management.     Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Silos,  Ensilage,  and  Silage. 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  Ensilage  of  Fodder  Com.  Containing  the 
most  recent  and  authentic  information  on  this  important  subject,  by 
Manly  Miles,  M.D.,  F.R.M.S.    Hlustrated.     Cloth  12mo.... 50 

Broom  Corn  and  Brooms. 

A  Treatise  on  Raising  Broom-Corn  and  Making  Brooms  on  a  small  or 
Large  Scale.     Illustrated.    12mo.     Cloth  cover 50 

American  Bird  Fancier. 

Or  how  to  breed,  rear,  and  care  for  Song  and  Domestic  Birds.  This 
valuable  and  important  little  work  for  all  who  are  interested  in  the 
keepino;  of  Song  Birds,  has  been  revised  and  enlaiged,  and  is  now  a 
complete  manual  upon  the  subject.  All  who  own  valuable  birds,  or 
wish  to  do  so,  will  find  the  new  Fancier  indispensable.  New,  revised 
and  enlarged  edition.  By  D.  J.  Browne,  and  Dr.  FuUer  Walker.  Illus- 
trated, paper  cover 50 


